tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-62243731480164204072024-03-18T07:03:41.791+01:00The History Notes<strong>Please visit us on the new address <a href="http://www.historynotes.info">The History Notes</a></strong>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.comBlogger94125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-72195668961209927562015-11-21T18:08:00.000+01:002015-11-21T18:10:43.230+01:00Medieval Horse Armour<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Such investments needed to be protected, and it is unsurprising that
there should be a development in horse armour that parallels that of
armour for the knight. It was by no means a total innovation; the late
Roman army had used horses wholly covered in mail or lamellar armour for
the <i>catapbracti</i> (literally ‘completely enclosed’) or <i>klibanophoroi </i>(meaning
‘camp oven’; a humorous reference to how quickly these fully armoured
men and horses would heat up!), both of which were adopted from their
Sassanid Persian neighbours who spanned the Middle East between second
and seventh centuries. Whilst such <a href="http://www.historynotes.info/medieval-arms-and-armoury-2318/">armour </a>continued to be used in small numbers in the Byzantine Empire, this practice had died out in Western Europe long before.<br />
<br />
<span id="more-2986"></span><br />
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<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/horse-armour-1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="horse armour 1" class="aligncenter wp-image-2987" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/horse-armour-1.jpg" height="392" width="599" /></a></div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>The rule of the Templars makes no reference to either bards or horse
armour (although it does specify that no brother should have an ornate
and decorated bridle), which might suggest that at the time of its
writing (between 1135 and 1187) horse armour was not used. When
interpreting the visual sources, the same problem exists for identifying
horse armour as it does for spotting early 13th century plate armour.
Just as a pair of plates might be hidden beneath a flowing surcoat, so
horse armour might lie beneath an emblazoned ‘bard’, ‘caparison’ or
‘hoarding’ – cloth covers that need to be an armour themselves. Such
barding appear in illustrations from around the first decade of the 13th
century, but this need not mean that the horse was armoured at this
point. By the end of the 13th century the term <i>milites cum equus coopertus, </i>‘warriors
with covered horses’, was being used to differentiate between the
knight and man-at-arms and the less well equipped and socially inferior
sergeants, squires, hobelars and the like, who were referred to as <i>milites cum equus discoopertus.</i><br />
<br />
A clear indication of armour is to be found in a manuscript of Thomas of Kent’s <i>Roman de Toute Chevalerie, </i>dated
to around 1250 and illustrated by Matthew Paris or one of that school
of illuminators. It includes some depictions of horses in full mail <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barding">barding</a>,
including a scene of armourers working on the front half of a set and
although not every horse is so equipped, this is supported by several
manuscripts of similar date.<br />
<br />
<i>Cuir bouilli </i>defences were also used; Edward I provided 38 <i>chamfrons</i>, or headpieces, and a similar number of <i>cruppers</i>,
which covered the horse’s rump, for a tournament at Windsor Park in
1278. In the 1322 inventory of Wigmore Castle five pairs of chamfrons
are recorded, along with five pairs of leather <i>flanchers </i>and <i>peytrals</i>, which would cover the horse’s withers and chest respectively. The <a href="http://bookish-relish.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-luttrell-psalter.html">Luttrell psalter</a>
image of about 20 years later clearly shows Sir Geoffrey Luttrell’s
mount with a chamfron. This is almost certainly of leather as it sports a
fan-like crest identical to that on the banneret’s helm, which would
itself have been almost certainly constructed of <i>cuir bouilli</i>.<br />
<br />
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<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/horse-armour-3.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="horse armour 3" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2988" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/horse-armour-3.jpg" height="338" width="578" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
The joust had a great impact on the development of armour. The danger
of the creatures running into each other or, after its introduction in
the 1420s, into the tilt barrier led to the development in the 14th
century of padded buffers that sat beneath the caparison and protected
the horse’s chest. But again it was the metallurgical developments of
the 14th century that brought about the clearest changes. The ability to
create large iron blooms meant that plate armour could be made for the
horse as well as his rider. Starting with the chamfron, by the mid-15th
century the ‘soft’ armours had been replaced by hinged and pinned
plates. At about the same time cloth bardings become relegated to the
tournament and pageant field, in part because they were unnecessary
encumbrance but also, perhaps, because of the contemporary fashion
amongst men-at-arms for doing away with heraldic surcoats to show off
the ‘white harness’ underneath.<br />
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<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/horse-armour-5.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="horse armour 5" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2989" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/horse-armour-5.jpg" height="578" width="446" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
The knight in shining armour of popular image, encased in a carapace
of steel, was a late arrival onto the medieval scene. His wargear
evolved almost continuously as armourers and weapon-smiths responded to
the changing tactical needs and fashions of their clients and to the
changing quality of their metals. Developments in the power and
effectiveness of weapons were countered by changes in armour which in
turn led to further improvements in arms. Thus the knight of the 12th
century, clad in mail and a nasal helm, was as well protected from the
weapons of his days as the plate-armoured man-at-arms of the 15th
century, but this by no means made him invulnerable.<br />
<br />
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<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/horse-armour-4.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="horse armour 4" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2990" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/horse-armour-4.jpg" height="505" width="292" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
The knight had a range of options to choose from, in terms of both
the armour he wore and the weapons he used and whilst the culture of
personal prowess and the expectations of fashions might direct those
choices to a certain extent, a sophisticated understanding of tactics
and battlefield also played a role. The nature of that tactical
sophistication and how and where the warrior acquired it is the subject
of our next chapter.<br />
<br />
<i>from Robert Jones’s book ‘Knight, The Warrior and World of Chivalry’ </i></div>
thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com10tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-4713973620397462702015-07-29T17:38:00.000+02:002015-07-29T17:39:09.154+02:00Key develoments in the British army in 17th century<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
In the 1690s the English army’s matchlock musket (slow to load,
clumsy to operate at the mercy of the elements) was replaced by a
lighter weapon with a more robust firing system known as the flintlock.
At the same time the old plug bayonet gave way to a socket version that
fitted around the muzzle and enabled the gun to be fired. When allied to
the new tactic of fighting three ranks deep and firing rolling volleys
by platoons (18 to a battalion), these innovations made the English
(later British) infantrymen the dominant factor on the battlefield.<br />
<span id="more-2922"></span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Captain Thomas Hewitt, 10th Regiment of Foot, by William Tate. Captain Hewitt holds his socket bayonet" class="size-full wp-image-2923" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Captain-Thomas-Hewitt-10th-Regiment-of-Foot-by-William-Tate.-Captain-Hewitt-holds-his-socket-bayonet.jpg" height="544" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="452" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">Captain Thomas Hewitt, 10th Regiment of Foot, by William Tate. Captain Hewitt holds his socket bayonet</span><br />
<a name='more'></a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The first two Hanoverian monarchs, George I and II, were both
soldiers who made important changes to the internal organisation of the
British army. George I introduced German methods of organisation,
economy and tactics, including a standard arms-drill and annual
regimental inspections. He also beefed up the code of discipline known
as the Articles of War; and regulated the purchase system for officers’
commissions. George II, who had a horse run away with him at Dettingen,
made promotion more meritocratic by rewarding length of service and
martial achievement. these reforms would help British troops win the
Seven Years’ War.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Portrait of King George II at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743" class=" wp-image-2924" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Portrait-of-King-George-II-at-the-Battle-of-Dettingen-in-1743.jpg" height="419" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="561" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">Portrait of King George II at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2924" style="width: 571px;">
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<span style="color: black;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
James Wolfe is best known for dying at the moment of victory at
Quebec in 1759. But his greatest contribution to the development of the
British army was the introduction of a groundbreaking new firing drill –
known as the ‘alternate-fire’ system – and the use of the bayonet as an
offensive rather than a defensive weapon. He combined the two in a
simple but effective battle tactic – a close-quarter musket volley,
followed by a bayonet charge – that British infantrymen would use to
sweep all (or almost all) before them for much of the next century.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="The portrait of General James Wolfe by J.S.C. Schaak" class="size-full wp-image-2925" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/The-portrait-of-General-James-Wolfe-by-J.S.C.-Schaak.jpg" height="597" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="480" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">The portrait of General James Wolfe by J.S.C. Schaak</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2925" style="width: 490px;">
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<span style="color: black;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
A failure as a field commander, Prince Frederick, the Duke of York,
found his meter as commander-in-chief by introducing a host of important
reforms: he reorganised the Headquarters Staff and founded both the
Senior and Junior Departments of Royal Military College (later the Staff
College and RMA Sandhurst respectively) in an attempt to ensure that
all officers were more professional. He improved service conditions (by
increasing pay and reducing the term of enlistment) and training; and he
revolutionised the use of light troops by issuing, new training
exercises and creating a new ‘Corps of riflemen’ (later the Rifle
Brigade).<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Cadets of the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. Junior Department" class="size-full wp-image-2926" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Cadets-of-the-Royal-Military-College-at-Sandhurst.-Junior-Department.jpg" height="428" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="344" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">Cadets of the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. Junior Department</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
During the American War of Independence, cannon were still largely
the same weapons that had been used by Marlborough: smooth-bore,
muzzle-loading and mounted on heavy two-wheeled carriages, and firing
round-shot, canister and shell. But in 1785 Henry Shrapnel invented a
new shell for howitzers that took his name and gave British artillery a
crucial edge on the battlefield. It consisted of the same hollow
cast-iron sphere and fuse as a common shell, but filled with gunpowder
and lead balls that burst over an enemy position with lethal
consequences. Other artillery innovations at this time were elevating
screws for quicker and more precise aiming, and a lighter single
block-trail carriage and limber for greater manoeuvrability.</div>
thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-25487842728956785652013-09-14T12:15:00.000+02:002013-09-14T12:15:04.832+02:00Nostradamus: The Renaissance man<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
History remembers <b>Nostradamus</b> mostly for his uncanny gift of
prophecy. This famous talent never dominated his attention. Along with
being a noted doctor, capable of curing entire cities of plague,
Nostradamus was a consummate gourmet and creator of fruit preservatives.
His recipe for quince jelly earned him the praise of the Papal legate
of Avignon for its nearly heavenly sweetness.<br />
<br />
<img alt="" class="mce-wp-more mceItemNoResize" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-includes/js/tinymce/plugins/wordpress/img/trans.gif" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-includes/js/tinymce/plugins/wordpress/img/trans.gif" title="More..." /><br />
Nostradamus
was also a master astrologer. The wealthy and noble-born of Europe beat
the path to his door for horoscopes. High-born women of his day rushed
to his residence in Salon de Provence to seek his advice on cosmetics.
The author of prophetic works was also a noted translator of classics
into French. He wrote a comprehensive book on the doctors and
pharmacists he met throughout his travels in Southern Europe called <i>Trakt</i><i>é</i><i> des Fardemens</i>.
Often he would stay as a guest of the few doctors and pharmacists he
respected, collaborating with them to cure the sick by day, becoming
their eager pupil by night in occult instruction. These men, like
himself, belonged to families of ex-Jews participating in an underground
network of alchemists and cabalists seeking answers to mysteries beyond
the absolutes preached in the outer Christian world.<br />
<br />
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
<a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-2.jpg" href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-2.jpg"><img alt="Portrait of Nostradamus Making Predictions" class="aligncenter wp-image-2510" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-2.jpg" height="600" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-2.jpg" width="448" /></a></div>
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<a name='more'></a><br data-mce-bogus="1" /><br />
By
1529 “Le Charbon” had subsided enough for Nostradamus to return to
Montpellier for his doctorate degree. A large crowd gathered in the
great hall to observe the already famous young man’s oral examination
before the entire faculty. Nostradamus expertly countered arguments
against his unorthodox practices, stressing his successes as defence.
The dean was impressed enough to award him the distinctive cap and ring
of a doctor of the medicine as well as a place in the faculty of
Montpellier. He remained a professor for three years until restriction
imposed on his liberal wanderings from accepted text resolved him to
saddle up and once again take to the road.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-31.jpg" href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-31.jpg"><img alt="Nostradamus 3" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2516" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-31.jpg" height="552" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-31.jpg" width="393" /></a></div>
<br data-mce-bogus="1" />
He
made another circuit through the cities of his past successes, stopping
at Toulouse to set up a more permanent practice. There he received a
letter from <b>Julius-Cesar Scaliger</b> in 1534, inviting the doctor to
Agen. Scaliger, respected as second only to Erasmus, was one of the
greatest scholars and philosophers of the Renaissance.<br />
They become
fast friends. The doctor delighted in sharpening his wits with the
mercurial mind of Scaliger. Nostradamus settled in Agen near the home of
his mentor. He had fallen in love with the town’s bright sunny skies
and dry climate. His medical practice flourished. Soon the wealthiest
families in town were parading their daughters of marrying age before
his eye. He married a young woman of great charm and beauty whose name
cannot be confirmed [1. possibly Henriette d'Encausse]. She bore him a
beautiful boy and girl. Nostradamus lived an idyllic life for the next
three years, spending his days at the Scaliger’s house surrounded by
some of the greatest minds in Europe, and his nights nourished in the
love and security of a happy home.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-1.jpg" href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-1.jpg"><img alt="Nostradamus 1" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2512" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-1.jpg" height="630" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-1.jpg" width="389" /></a></div>
<br data-mce-bogus="1" />
In
1537 plague visited Agen with the clatter of death carts on cobblestone
streets. Nostradamus sprang to action with all the confidence and
energy of the past. Each day he bade farewell to his healthy young
family, thanking the Divines for their continued good health while death
stalked the households of Agen. One day he returned from his tour of
wealthy patients to find his wife and children burning from the fever,
their faces developing the black boils of the “Le Charbon”. Every
technique failed to cure them. The healing hands which cured thousands
wrung themselves helplessly as they all died.<br />
Word of the doctor’s
personal tragedy spread throughout town as a great scandal. Most of his
patients deserted him. His wife’s family demanded he return her dowry
at once. When he refused they took him to court. Nostradamus had
terrible quarrel with Scaliger who was known for breaking his
friendships and who chose this moment to strike out at the grieving and
vulnerable doctor with singular cruelty.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-4.jpg" href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-4.jpg"><img alt="Nostradamus 4" class="aligncenter wp-image-2513" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-4.jpg" height="355" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Nostradamus-4.jpg" width="507" /></a></div>
<br data-mce-bogus="1" />
As
if this were not enough Nostradamus suffered yet another blow, this
time from a remark he made during happier days to a workman casting a
bronze statue of the Virgin Mary. Nostradamus was known for having a
biting sense of humour and his remark to the workman had been in
reference to the “casting of demons”. The joke came back to haunt him
three years after when the workman, nursing revenge, saw his chance to
strike the fallen doctor by alerting the Church authorities of
Nostradamus’ comment. The doctor was called to stand before a
preliminary hearing on a charge of heresy. He defended his joke as an
innocent description of the workman’s mediocrity and nothing more. The
Church authorities remained suspicious and Nostradamus was instructed to
stand trial before the Church Inquisitors at Toulouse.<br />
He escaped
from Agen under cover of darkness, heading his mule east to Italy. He
would wander through Western and Southern Europe avoiding the Church
Inquisitors for the next six years, trying to pick up the shattered
pieces of his life in a pilgrimage of self-discovery. It was during this
period that his prophetic powers awakened.<br />
<br />
source <a href="http://www.historynotes.info/">The History Notes website</a><br />
</div>
thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-28932541124956881702013-06-04T22:55:00.000+02:002013-09-14T12:15:58.657+02:00King Kenneth MacAlpin and the Alban kings<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The centre of administration of the Pictish kingdom in the 9<sup>th</sup> century was Forteviot on the River Earn. Close by the Dunkeld, King <b>Kenneth MacAlpin</b>
(Cináed mac Ailpín) set up a new religious centre about 850AD. This was
an acknowledgement of the fact that Iona was now no longer tenable as a
religious capital, although the monastery was eventually re-established
and it remained the burial place of Pictish kings until the time of
Donald Ban.<span id="more-2241"></span><br />
While the record is one of almost constant strife at this time there
must have been periods and localities where normal life continued
without interruption, and the <b>Picts </b>practised the arts that still survive in fine sculpture and perhaps others that have perished.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Pictish-fort-at-Burghead.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Pictish fort at Burghead" class=" wp-image-2242" height="337" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Pictish-fort-at-Burghead.jpg" width="463" /></a></div>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2242" style="text-align: center; width: 473px;">
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<i><span style="color: black;"> Pictish fort at Burghead</span></i></div>
<div class="wp-caption-text">
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<a name='more'></a><br /></div>
</div>
The Pictish kings, who were warriors first and foremost, must have
summoned fighting men from all their chiefs and headmen, although the
numbers involved in these battles may not have been very great. Exposed
communities took the brunt of the fighting. It is likely that at this
time many ancient brochs were rebuilt and occupied while new ones were
also constructed. A new defensive building development, perhaps copied
from Ireland, was the tall round tower, of which examples remain at
Abernethy and Brechin.<br />
The sea was still a vital food source and communications route, and
although coastal communities must have lived in suspense and fear for
much of the time, even the limited trading of the times was essential
and had to be maintained. Warfare demanded weapons, and many daily items
required metal. Chiefs’ households wanted foreign luxuries: hides,
wool, amber and copper were all being shipped out in return. Kenneth MacAlpin died in 858AD and was succeeded by his brother, Donald
I. In his reign there was a change from the previous law of succession
to the Scots form of tanistry. <br />
<sup><br /></sup>
<sup><br /></sup>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/The-coronation-chair-containing-the-Stone-of-Destiny.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="The coronation chair containing the Stone of Destiny" class="size-full wp-image-2247" height="439" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/The-coronation-chair-containing-the-Stone-of-Destiny.jpg" width="336" /></a></div>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2247" style="text-align: center; width: 346px;">
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<br /></div>
</div>
Conflict with the Norse invaders continued. Forteviot was burned and
Dunkeld was raided. The civil government was moved to Scone, to which
Kenneth MacAlpin had already carried the coronation stone of the Scots
in 850AD after it had been rescued from Iona. Around this time, perhaps
because of the burning of Dunkeld, Abernethy became a religious centre.
But St Andrews, with a legacy of Celtic Culdee – from the Gaelic <i>Cele Dei</i>,
friends of God – monasticism, as well as the growing cult of St
Andrews, based on the legend that the the apostle’s bones had been
brought there, eclipsed other places as a place of pilgrimage and an
ecclesiastical centre.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Donald-II.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Donald II" class="size-full wp-image-2244" height="401" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Donald-II.jpg" width="300" /></a></div>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2244" style="width: 310px;">
<div class="wp-caption-text" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: black;"> </span></div>
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<br /></div>
</div>
In the reign of <b>Donald II</b>, the first monarch to be called ‘King of Scotland’ or <i>Ri Alba</i>, from 889AD, <b>Harold Fairhair </b>established the Norwegian kingdom. Shetland, Orkney, Caithness and the Hebrides were <i>de facto</i>
his possessions and became Norwegian earldoms. The ruler of Alba could
do nothing about, or to stop the activities of predatory Norwegian
earls. Nevertheless, the grim, dour persistence of the MacAlpin kings
and their people preserved the greater part of their realm while other
kingdoms vanished. At least three kings of Alba died fighting the
Vikings; one was killed fighting the Britons and others fell to internal
strife.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Harold-Fairhair-the-first-king-of-Norway.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Harold-Fairhair-the-first-king-of-Norway.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2245" style="width: 410px;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
</div>
In 911AD the formation of the duchy of Normandy caused attention to
turn to France. Calls for alliances came from Mercia and Northumbria,
who were now facing menaces from all sides. A battle of Corbridge in
918AD held the Norsemen south of the Tyne. Before long the Norse forces
became firmly established as a power in Northumbria, and <b>Constantine I</b>, king of Scots, was making treaties with them.<br />
In 926AD, <b>Athelstan</b>, king of Wessex and Mercia, took over
Northumbria, and in 934AD he invaded the Sots both overland and from the
sea. By 937 the Scots, Britons and Norsemen retaliated with a landing
on the Solway coast. Athelstan, supported by other factions of the
Norsemen, won the resulting battle of Brunanburh. Constantine I, like a
number of his predecessors, retired to a monastery in St Andrews and was
succeeded by his nephew, <b>Malcolm I</b>.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/King-Aethelstan.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img height="640" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/King-Aethelstan.jpg" width="448" /></a></div>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2246" style="width: 440px;">
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<br /></div>
</div>
In 945AD Malcolm negotiated the possession of Cumberland from <b>Eadmund of England</b>
in return for his collaboration. This means that this part of the
kingdom of Strathclyde had become detached from the ‘Scottish’ end and
had passed to English control at an earlier and unknown date.<br />
Malcolm’s successor was his cousin <b>Indulf</b>. During the reign of
Indulf, attempts were made to regain Northumbrian – once Bernician –
territory, and Lothian may have been annexed at this time. Some time
later, around 971AD, Eadgar of England formally ceded Lothian to <b>Kenneth II</b>. Southern gains were balanced by northern losses. By 987AD the Norwegian <b>Earl Sigurd the Mighty</b> of Orkney was also master of northern Scotland as far down as Moray.<br />
<i>David R. Ross</i><br />
<b>The House of Alban</b><br />
<b>Kenneth MacAlpin</b> (died 858), son of Alpin, King of Dalriada<br />
<b>Donald I</b> (reigned 858 – 62), brother of Kenneth MacAlpin<br />
<b>Constantine I</b> (reigned 862 – 77), son of Kenneth MacAlpin<br />
<b>Aedh</b> (reigned 877 – 78), son of Kenneth MacAlpin<br />
<b>Eochaid</b> (reigned 878 – 89), son of Run Macarthagail, king of Strathclyde<br />
<b>Donald II</b> (reigned 889 – 900), son of Constantine I<br />
<b>Constantine II</b> (reigned 900 – 42, died 952), son of Aedh<br />
<b>Malcolm I</b> (reigned 942 – 54), son of Donald II<br />
<b>Indulf</b> (reigned 954 – 62), son of Constantine II<br />
<b>Duff</b> (reigned 962 – 66/7), son of Malcolm I<br />
<b>Colin</b> (reigned 966/7 – 71), son of Indulf<br />
<b>Kenneth II</b> (reigned 971 – 95), son of Malcolm I<br />
<b>Constantine III</b> (reigned 995 – 97), son of Colin<br />
<b>Kenneth III</b> (reigned 997 – 1005), son of Duff</div>
thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-40065202472008391512013-05-12T19:51:00.000+02:002013-09-14T12:20:00.927+02:00Jacob Tonson and the Kit-Cat Club<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
In the snowy spring of 1733, <b>Samuel Croxall</b>, a classical translator, travelled to Herefordshire to visit his retired publisher, <b>Jacob Tonson</b>.
Tonson was now an emaciated, deaf old man, who spent his days drinking
sack and reading by the fireside. According to Alexander Pope, however,
Tonson’s mind remained “full of matter, secret history, and wit and
spirit“. Croxall was hoping to extract some of this „secret history“ –
an account of the most important London gentlemen’s club of the early
1700s, founded by Tonson: <b>the Kit-Cat Club</b>.<span id="more-2183"></span>When Croxall roared his request, the near 80-years-old publisher
„came into it at once, said nobody could tell better what to say of them
[the Kit-Cats] than himself, for, to tell me the truth, he had been
drunk with every one of them.“<br />
<br />
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2184" style="width: 464px;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Kit-Cat-Club-1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and the Kit-Cats" class=" wp-image-2184 " height="280" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Kit-Cat-Club-1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="wp-caption-text" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: white;">Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and the Kit-Cats</span></div>
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<br /></div>
</div>
Given his humble birth, Tonson was proud to have caroused with so
many aristocrats and famous authors. Son of a barber-surgeon and
bookseller, he grew up during the Restoration, taunted for his lame left
leg, red hair and freckled „bull face“. After apprenticeship to a
stationer, Tonson set up his own firm, purchasing the works of major
authors such as Dryden, and quickly establishing a reputation as the
first professional London publisher. <br />
<a name='more'></a>During William III’s reign, <b>John Somers</b>,
a lawyer whose star was rising under the new regime, befriended Tonson.
They regularly ’unbent’ over bottles at Temple Bar taverns – even after
Somers was made Lord Keeper in 1693. That year, Tonson started sharing a
Fleet Street house with the brilliant young playwright William
Congreve. Tonson acted as broker between his authors in need of income
(like Congreve) and peers and politicians (like Somers and his Whig
party colleagues) wanting to enhance their own reputations through
gestures of literary patronage.<br />
<br />
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2185" style="width: 441px;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Jacob-Tonson.jpg"><img alt="Jacob Tonson (1655/6–1736)" class=" wp-image-2185 " height="400" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Jacob-Tonson.jpg" width="306" /></a></div>
<div class="wp-caption-text" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: white;">Jacob Tonson (1655/6–1736)</span></div>
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<br /></div>
</div>
Shrewd, sociable and discreet, Tonson founded the Kit-Cat Club to
solidify these relationships. He began by gathering the gang of
„poetical young springs“ for Thursday meals at a Gray’s Inn pie-shop,
belonging to one <b>Mr Christopher</b> (’Kit’) <b>Catling </b>(or
’Cat’), and promised to feed them delicious mutton pies in exchange for
first options on their writings – effectively hosting the earliest
recorded publisher’s expense account dinners. By 1700, this grouping,
including many rich patron-members, was known as the Kit-Cat Club.<br />
The club gradually expanded in size and ambition, becoming an
unofficial centre of Whig power. It supported continuation of the Duke
of Marlborough’s war against France, opposed restoration of the Stuarts,
and aimed to reform English poetry and music to befit Britain’s new
’golden age’. In early 1703, Tonson leased a house at Barn Elms, west of
Putney, as the Club’s summer venue, hiring Kit-Cat
playwright-turned-architect John Vanbrugh to make the property fit „for
the reception of a king“. The house received no royal visit, but instead
a collection of Club portraits, painted by <b>Godfrey</b> <b>Kneller </b>and donated to Tonson by the Club’s members.<br />
<br />
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2186" style="width: 352px;">
<div style="text-align: right;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/William-Congreve.jpg"><img alt="William Congreve (1670 – 1729)" class="size-full wp-image-2186" height="400" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/William-Congreve.jpg" width="325" /></a></div>
<div class="wp-caption-text" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: white;">William Congreve (1670 – 1729)</span></div>
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<br /></div>
</div>
Tonson made a fortune throug his publications (especially the collected <i>Spectator </i>essays, written by Kit-Cat journalists <b>Joseph Addison </b>and <b>Richard Steele</b>).
Dukes, earls and cabinet ministers treated him as their friend rather
than servant, though they also made him the butt of their raillery on
several occasions. When Tonson was on the Continent, Vanbrugh reported
that he, Congreve and Baron Halifax (a government minister, Bank of
England founder and Kit-Cat) toasted Tonson’s quick return „as we were
sopping our Arses in the Fountain“ at Hampton Court Palace.<br />
<br />
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2187" style="width: 379px;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/The-Spectator-was-a-daily-publication-founded-by-Joseph-Addison-and-Richard-Steele-in-England-lasting-from-1711-to-1712.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/The-Spectator-was-a-daily-publication-founded-by-Joseph-Addison-and-Richard-Steele-in-England-lasting-from-1711-to-1712.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div class="wp-caption-text" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: white;">The
Spectator was a daily publication founded by Joseph Addison and Richard
Steele in England, lasting shortly, from 1711 to 1712</span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="wp-caption-text">
<br /></div>
</div>
Tonson did not abdicate the Club’s chair until George I’s reign, when
the Duke of Newcastle briefly took over. In 1725, Vanbrugh wrote
nostalgically to Tonson that he had been visiting Lords Cobham and
Carlisle, „old Friends that have been of a Club, and the best Club that
ever met.“ Tonson remained until his death among Herefordshire
neighbours who would, he complained, appreciate „a signpost as well as
[a] Van Dyke, & any sad poem with Rhyme as well as Paradise Lost.“<br />
<br />
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_2188" style="width: 412px;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Thomas-Pelham-Holles-1st-Duke-of-Newcastle-upon-Tyne-1693-1768.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (1693-1768)" class=" wp-image-2188 " height="479" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Thomas-Pelham-Holles-1st-Duke-of-Newcastle-upon-Tyne-1693-1768.jpg" width="402" /></a><span style="color: black;"> <span style="color: white;"> Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (1693-1768)</span></span></div>
</div>
Tonson outlived his famous Kit-Cat authors, dying a bachelor in 1736.
Sadly, despite Croxall’s request for memoirs, no such manuscript has
been discovered. This has contributed to consistent underestimation of
the Kit-Cat Club’s impact, as the model for hundreds of clubs that
followed, and as a powerful political, literary and social network based
on professional friendships rather than family ties.<br />
<br />
<i>By Ophelia Field, author of ’The Kit-Cat Club’</i></div>
thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-44884324370053134102013-02-16T22:29:00.000+01:002013-02-16T22:30:43.130+01:00Anne Boleyn’s marriage preparation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
There had been persistent rumours throughout the summer of 1532 that
Anne and Henry would marry during the interview at Calais. At first,
Anne had gone out of her way to encourage the gossip. ‘Not later than a
week ago’, Chapuys reported in late August, ‘she wrote a letter to her
principal friend and favourite here, whom she holds as sister and
companion, bidding her to get ready against this journey and interview,
where, she says, that which she has been so long wishing for will be
accomplished’. <img alt="" class="mceWPmore mceItemNoResize" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-includes/js/tinymce/plugins/wordpress/img/trans.gif" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-includes/js/tinymce/plugins/wordpress/img/trans.gif" title="More..." />But,
just before leaving England, she changed her tune. She ‘assured a great
personage’, Chapuys discovered, ‘that even if the King wished to marry
her now she would never consent to it, for she wants the ceremony to
take place here, in England, at the usual place appointed for the
marriage and coronation of Queens’!<br />
Why the alteration?<br />
<br />
<div class="mceTemp mceIEcenter">
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/anne-boleyn-2/" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/anne-boleyn-2.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span data-mce-style="color: #000000;" style="color: black;">Anne Boleyn, Marquess of Pembroke (c. 1501 – 19 May 1536)</span><br />
<a name='more'></a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The
explanation, almost certainly, is that Anne had been doing her
research. She had already, as we have seen, informed herself widely on
the debate about the Divorce. Noe she wanted to make sure that her own
title as Queen would be unimpeachable. This means that everything would
have to be done in the proper form set out in the bible of ceremony
known as <i>The Royal Book</i>. <i>The Royal Book</i> devotes one of its longest and most detailed chapters to ‘The Receiving of a Queen and her Coronation’:</div>
<i>Item
[it provides] when a Queen shall be received out of a strange realm,
the King must purvey certain lords and ladies of estate to meet with her
at the seaside, and convey her to the palace where the King will be
wedded… Also it must be understood whether the King will be wedded
privily or openly… And that done, she must be conveyed unto her
coronation to the city of London…</i><br />
<div class="mceTemp mceIEcenter">
<dl class="wp-caption aligncenter" data-mce-style="width: 467px;" id="attachment_2049" style="width: 467px;"></dl>
</div>
It
was these stipulations, at least as much as the pressure of
contemporary events, which governed Anne’s and Henry’s actions over the
next few months.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/anne-and-henry/" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img height="528" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/anne-and-henry.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span data-mce-style="color: #000000;" style="color: black;">Anne and Henry VIII</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<i>The Royal Book</i> took for granted, as indeed
had usually been the case in the Middle Ages, that the queen-to-be
would be a foreign princess. Anne, on the other hand, was neither
foreign nor royal. But she seems to have imagined that she was both. Her
coats-of-arms, both as Marquess of Pembroke and later as Queen,
proclaim her fictive royalty; and, clearly, her own self-identity was
French rather than English.<br />
The circumstances of the Calais
interview reinforced all this. She had re-entered the world of the
French Court; she had danced with the French King and talked privately
with him. Now she was sailing to English soil where she soon she would
be crowned. It was just as The Royal Book prescribed. What more natural
therefore than to marry Henry as soon as they landed? And ‘privily’ – as
<i>The Royal Book</i> permitted and the fact that Henry was still married to Catherine required?<br />
<div class="mceTemp mceIEcenter">
<dl class="wp-caption aligncenter" data-mce-style="width: 360px;" id="attachment_2050" style="width: 360px;"></dl>
</div>
And this, according to one generally well-informed source, is what actually happened. Anne and Henry landed at Dover on 14<sup>th</sup>
November. This was St Erconwald’s Day. And on this day. the chronicler
Hall writes, ‘the King after his return married privily the Lady Anne
Boleyn… which marriage was kept so secret that very few knew it’.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/henrys-letter-to-anne/" href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/henrys-letter-to-anne/" rel="attachment wp-att-2050" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Henry's letter to Anne " class="size-full wp-image-2050" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/henrys-letter-to-anne.jpg" height="640" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/henrys-letter-to-anne.jpg" width="548" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span data-mce-style="color: #000000;" style="color: black;">Henry's letter to Anne</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The
moment was psychologically right. Anne had lived with Henry in Calais
openly as his consort. She had behaved and been treated as his Queen.
And she had been given Francis’s blessing. To have gone back to England
and chastity must have seemed intolerable – both to her and to Henry.
But equally Anne was not the woman to surrender without a marriage. Not
even the promise of marriage would have done. Instead, there must have
been the thing itself, with a priest, a ring and the exchange of vows.
Quite what such a secret marriage was worth, in view of Henry’s now
bigamous state, was another matter.<br />
<div class="mceTemp mceIEcenter">
<dl class="wp-caption aligncenter" data-mce-style="width: 458px;" id="attachment_2051" style="width: 458px;"></dl>
</div>
But,
for the moment, neither Anne nor Henry cared. On their slow return
journey through Kent, Henry was unusually generous with rewards and
charitable gifts; and he threw money away on card-games. His partners
were Anne herself, her cousin <b>Francis Bryan</b>, and <b>Francis Weston</b>, the handsome young page who was a favourite of both Henry and Anne. It was, in short, a winter honeymoon.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/anne-and-henry-hunting/" href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/anne-and-henry-hunting/" rel="attachment wp-att-2051" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Anne and Henry VIII hunting" class="size-full wp-image-2051" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/anne-and-henry-hunting.jpg" height="640" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/anne-and-henry-hunting.jpg" width="518" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span data-mce-style="color: #000000;" style="color: black;">Anne and Henry VIII hunting</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
As
soon as they returned to Greenwich at the end of November, it seems,
the couple had a single thought: to inspect the works at the Tower which
had been begun in June 1532. The works were preceded by a full
structural survey and were on a scale large enough to attract the
attention of foreign ambassadors. But none seem to have grasped their
real purpose. For the Venetian ambassador, who was the first to notice
that something was going on, it was simply the question of strengthening
the defences: Henry ‘has commenced inspecting the artillery and
ammunition in the Tower, which he purposes fortifying’, he reported.
Chapuys, with his excellent sources of information, described the
programme of works much more accurately: ‘considerable repairs’, he
noted in September, ‘have been made in the Tower of London, both inside
and outside, refitting the apartments which were out of order’. Where
his sources went wrong, however, was over the intended use of the
refurbished rooms. ‘Some people believe’, he reported, ‘that it is the
King’s intention to send the Queen thither.’ Chapuys himself dismissed
the story as ‘highly improbable’. He was right to be dubious. For the
apartments were destined, not for Queen Catherine, but for Queen Anne.<br />
<div class="mceTemp mceIEcenter">
<dl class="wp-caption aligncenter" data-mce-style="width: 434px;" id="attachment_2055" style="width: 434px;"></dl>
</div>
Here once again we can see the results of Anne’s reading of <i>The Royal Book</i>.
It was the rule, the Book lays down, that the new Queen should go to
the Tower two days before her coronation. She was to spent the night
there, ‘at her own leasure’, before processing the following day in
state through the City and along the Strand to Westminster. But by 1532
the Tower was in no state to receive anybody, much less the woman for
whom Henry had defied the world.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/anne-boleyn-and-henry-viii/" href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/anne-boleyn-and-henry-viii/" rel="attachment wp-att-2055" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Anne and Henry VIII romantic scene" class="size-full wp-image-2055" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/anne-boleyn-and-henry-VIII.jpg" height="640" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/anne-boleyn-and-henry-VIII.jpg" width="451" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span data-mce-style="color: #000000;" style="color: black;">Anne and Henry VIII romantic scene</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The reason lay in a radical change in the royal itinerary. Up to the reign of Henry’s father, <b>Henry VII</b>, the Tower had been in frequent use as a royal residence. Henry had taken refuge there with his mother, <b>Elizabeth of York</b>,
from the Cornish rebels in 1497 and Elizabeth had died there six years
later in 1503. The newly-wedded Henry and Catherine had continued this
pattern for the first two years or their reign. But after 1510 the King
had visited the Tower only, on 20<sup>th</sup> January 1520. And the building, unvisited by the King, had fallen into serious neglect.<br />
The state of disrepair is documented by the survey of 1532. It emerges even more vividly from the letters which <b>John Whalley</b>,
the paymaster of the works, wrote during the absence of the Court at
the Calais interview in October. The letters were addressed to <b>Cromwell</b>,
who, as Lord High Everything Else, had been given charge of the Tower
works as well. ‘The house is wondrous foul’, Whalley reported. ‘There is
a thousand loads of rubbish to be taken out of the cellars and
kitchen.’ He had ‘this day 400 persons at work, and all little enough.’
Once the site was cleared, large numbers of masons and other craftsmen
were impressed to rush through the actual work of rebuilding.<br />
<div class="mceTemp mceIEcenter">
<dl class="wp-caption aligncenter" data-mce-style="width: 370px;" id="attachment_2052" style="width: 370px;"></dl>
</div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/thomas-cromwell/" href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/thomas-cromwell/" rel="attachment wp-att-2052" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Thomas Cromwell" class="size-full wp-image-2052" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/thomas-cromwell.jpg" height="640" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/thomas-cromwell.jpg" width="607" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span data-mce-style="color: #000000;" style="color: black;">Thomas Cromwell</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
By December, things were well advanced. On the 1<sup>st</sup>,
Henry made a day trip by boat from Greenwich to see how they were
coming along. He was pleased enough with what he saw to return twice,
and on both occasions with company. On about the 5<sup>th</sup>, he was met at the Tower by the French ambassador, to whom he showed the <i>Jewel House</i>
(Chapuys calls it ‘the treasure room’) – though without, according to
Chapuys, ‘giving him sight of its contents’. A few days later, Henry,
with a small suite, took Anne herself to the Tower. Once again French
ambassador turned up with despatches hot from France. This time the
ambassador accompanied the royal party on their inspection of the <i>Jewel House</i>.
Its contents had just been reorganized and reinventoried under
Cromwell’s supervision and Henry showed them off with delight. He even
gave the ambassador ‘one of the finest gold cups’ as a present. Chapuys
could not discover whether the gift had been made to reward the
ambassador for his news, which he had whispered privately to the King,
or whether it had been ‘to please the Lady [Anne]’.<br />
Anne herself,
however, was not there only to act as lady Bountiful to the French
ambassador. Instead, almost certainly, she had come to make a personal
choice of items of plate for her own use and that of her Household as
Queen-in-waiting. The selection is recorded in a list headed ‘parcels of
plate given by the King’s Highness to my Lady Marquess of Pembroke, in
the month of December [1532]’ and it numbered many dozens of cups,
bowls, pots, chandeliers, and spoons. The total weight was over 5,000
ounces of gilt and parcel [partly] gilt plate and the total value was
£1,200. Some of the items had previously belonged to Wolsey, while
another large group formed part of the property of Anne’s old enemy, <b>Sir Henry Guildford</b>,
who had died so heavily in debt to the King that his personal goods had
been forfeit. Even enemies, she might have reflected, came in useful
when they were dead.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/anne-and-henry-at-hever-castle/" href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/anne-and-henry-at-hever-castle/" rel="attachment wp-att-2054" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Anne and Henry at Hever Castle" class="size-full wp-image-2054" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/anne-and-henry-at-hever-castle.jpg" height="428" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/anne-and-henry-at-hever-castle.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span data-mce-style="color: #000000;" style="color: black;">Anne and Henry at Hever Castle</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Henry would also pointed out to her other objects on the shelves of the <i>Jewel House</i>,
including the Queen’s crown, sceptre and rod, which Anne would wear and
carry after her coronation in the Abbey. Then he would have taken her
to look at the work in progress on the Queen’s apartments. These lay in
the south-east corner of the Tower and they were still a building site.
But already the skeleton of her new Great Chamber and Dining Chamber was
clear. Here she would spend the night before going in procession to
Westminster for her coronation.<br />
Now, at last, it must all have
seemed very near. And it all seemed near for another, even more pressing
reason. Also in early December Anne became pregnant. The child, for
whom Henry had longed for so many years, had to be a boy. And his birth
had to be legitimate. A new note of urgency was sounded in royal policy.
And there was a new man of the moment: <b>Thomas Cranmer. </b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.historynotes.info/anne-boleyns-marriage-preparation-2047/thomas-cranmer/" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img height="640" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/thomas-cranmer.jpg" width="476" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Thomas Cranmer</td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Rumour
has it that Anne had been Cranmer’s pupil. He cannot have taught her
during her youth, which had of course been spent in France. Instead, she
would have been an adult student of his – in late 1529, when he had
been lodged at her father’s newly acquired town palace of Durham House,
or again after his return from Italy in late 1530, when he had been part
of the King’s legal and theological team at Court. But however cloudy
these details, one thing is certain: pupil and master developed a mutual
regard, which survived throughout extraordinary swings of fortune. The
first of these was about to occur. Cranmer would make Anne Queen. But
first she had to make him Archbishop of Canterbury.</div>
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thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-57943573190238855292012-08-12T13:32:00.001+02:002012-08-12T13:33:07.672+02:00World War II: Aftermath Facts<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The cost of <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>World War II</b></span>
is uncalculable in human or financial terms. estimates indicate that
about 55 million people died in Europe during the World War II; of
these, about 8 millions were German. Death was not for soldiers –
civilians died in their millions too, and came from many different
directions through these cruel years. In the opening stages of the war,
as the German armies invaded Poland, Adolf Hitler wasted little time in
organizing the killing of large numbers of non-combatants.<span id="more-1298"></span><br />
He wanted to minimize the potential for trouble making amongst the
Polish people, and so he tasked Himmler with eliminating the political
and cultural elite. Since the job was effectively wholesale murder, it
was given to the SS rather then a regular army. Several units of 400 to
600 men were assembled – these were not fighting forces, but death
squads. Called<i> Einsatzgruppen</i>, their role was to go in after
the invading armies had passed and arrest and murder certain categories
of civilians. These included government officials, aristocrats,
priests, and business people.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/jews-from-lodz.jpg"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1299" height="276" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/jews-from-lodz.jpg" title="jews from lodz" width="460" /></a><i> </i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i>Jews in Lodz train station</i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
The squads also sought out Jews and forced them into overcrowded
ghettos. The final death toll of Polish Jews was over 3 million, but
another 3 million or more non-Jewish Polish civilians also died in the
war. This amounted to losing around 18 percent of its prewar population –
this was a greater toll than for any other country in the world.<br />
Originally there were plans to ship the German Jews to Madagascar
where they would be corralled in special colonies. This became
impracticable once war has started, especially when millions more Jews
were captured in the occupied countries of the east. Instead, Hitler and
Himmler decided that mass extermination was the answer, and so the
Holocaust began. The Nazi’s “Final Solution” killed in the order of 6
million Jews, as well as countless homosexuals, the mentally ill, German
political prisoners and Bolsheviks. On the top of this, a million Serbs
were executed and around 1.5 million Romanies died during the period
1933 – 1945. It is estimated that the Nazis executed about 12 million
civilians in all.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/bombing.jpg"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1300" height="423" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/bombing.jpg" title="bombing" width="500" /></a></div>
<br />
There were death camps at <i>Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belsen, Treblinka, Sobibor, Majdanek, Dachau, Chelmno</i> and many others elsewhere in Germany and Poland. One of the death camps outside this countries was <i>Jasenovac</i>
in today’s Croatia, then Independent State of Croatia, Nazi Germany’s
most faithful ally. Camps in Germany and Poland were run by Himmler’s <i>Special Duty Section</i>
(Sonderdienst or SD) who supervised mass extermination in the killing
chambers which they disguised as showers. These had been specially
developed to kill large numbers of people with a gas called Zyklon-B, a
form of cyanide. The dead then were searched for gold teeth; their
bodies were often also boiled up to extract fat, which was used to make
soap or candles. <b><a href="http://www.historynotes.info/world-war-ii-aftermath-facts-1298/">Read more</a></b><br />
<br /></div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-9359172460745754032012-07-27T20:30:00.003+02:002012-07-27T20:31:55.477+02:00How many prisoners were freed by the storming of the Bastille?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Actually, only seven. In France, 14th July, <b>Bastille Day</b>,
is a national holiday and a glorious national symbol, equivalent to 4th
July in the United States of America. From the rousing paintings of the
scene, you might think hundreds of proud revolutionaries flooded into
streets waving tricolours. In fact, only just over half a dozen people
were being held at the time of the siege.<img alt="" class="mceWPmore mceItemNoResize" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-includes/js/tinymce/plugins/wordpress/img/trans.gif" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-includes/js/tinymce/plugins/wordpress/img/trans.gif" title="More..." />The
Bastille was stormed on 14th July 1789. Shortly afterwards ghoulish
engravings of prisoners languishing in chains next to skeletons went on
sale in the streets of Paris, forming the popular impression of the
conditions there ever since.<br />
<br />
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
<a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Bastille-1.jpeg" href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Bastille-1.jpeg"><img alt="" class="aligncenter wp-image-1498" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Bastille-1.jpeg" height="349" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Bastille-1.jpeg" title="Bastille 1" width="442" /></a></div>
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
<i>Storming of Bastille fortress </i></div>
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
The
thirteenth-century fortress had been a jail for centuries; by the time
of Louis XVI it mainly housed people arrested on the orders of the king
or his ministers for offences like conspiracy and subversion.
Distinguished former inmates included Voltaire, who wrote <i>"Oedipus"</i> there in 1718.<br />
The
seven prisoners in in residence that day were: four forgers, the Comte
de Solanges (inside for 'a sexual misdemeanour') and two lunatics (one
of them was an English or Irish man named Major Whyte who sported a
waist-length beard and thought he was Julius Caesar). Marquis de Sade
was transferred from the prison only ten days earlier.<br />
<br />
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
<a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/prisoners-from-Bastille.jpg" href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/prisoners-from-Bastille.jpg"><img alt="" class="aligncenter wp-image-1497" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/prisoners-from-Bastille.jpg" height="336" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/prisoners-from-Bastille.jpg" title="Prisoners in the rue Saint-Antoine after release from the Bastille " width="461" /></a></div>
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
<i>Prisoners in the rue Saint-Antoine after release from the Bastille on the 14th July 1789.</i></div>
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<i></i>One
hundred lives were lost in the attack, including that of the governor,
whose head was carried through Paris on a pike. The prison guard were a
contingent of <i>invalides</i> - soldiers invalided out of regular
service - and conditions were fairly comfortable for most inmates, with
relaxed visiting hours and furnished lodgings.<br />
The cost of
maintaining the Bastille fortress and garrison for so limited a purpose
had led to a consideration of closing it, just shortly before the
revolution began. It was, anyway, a symbol of royal tyranny.<br />
The
painter Jean Fragonard's sketch of visiting day in 1785 shows
fashionable ladies promenading around the courtyard with the prisoners,
who were given a generous spending allowance, plenty of tobacco and
alcohol, and were allowed to keep pets.<br />
<br />
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
<a data-mce-href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/fragonard-bastille-interior.jpg" href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/fragonard-bastille-interior.jpg"><img alt="" class="aligncenter wp-image-1499" data-mce-src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/fragonard-bastille-interior.jpg" height="333" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/fragonard-bastille-interior.jpg" title="fragonard bastille interior" width="447" /></a></div>
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
<i>Bastille's interior on Fragonard's sketch</i></div>
<div data-mce-style="text-align: center;" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<b>Jean
François Marmontel</b>, an inmate from 1759 to 1760, wrote: "The wine was
not excellent, but was passable. No dessert: it was necessary to be
deprived of something. On the whole i found that one dined very well in
prison." But, to be honest, his captivity was rather short - it lasted
only twelve days.<br />
Louis XVI's diary for the day of storming of the
Bastille reads - "Rien" (Nothing). He was refferering to the bag in
that day's hunt.<br />
<br />
source: <a href="http://www.historynotes.info/how-many-prisoners-were-freed-by-the-storming-of-the-bastille-1496/" target="_blank">The History Notes </a></div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-90757444950220154052012-05-27T13:40:00.000+02:002012-05-27T13:40:01.858+02:00Robert Curthose invasion of England in 1101<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Robert-of-normandy.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1239" height="400" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Robert-of-normandy.jpg" title="Robert of normandy" width="300" /></a><strong>Robert, Duke of Normandy</strong>, nicknamed Curthose for the
shortness of his legs and hence his leggings, was the oldest, nicest
and least effective of William the Conqueror’s three sons. Brave,
generous, good-natured and trusting, he was easily outmatched in
statecraft, ruthlessness and cunning by his younger brothers –<strong> William Rufus </strong>and<strong> Henry</strong>. <span id="more-1238"></span><br />
Their father had no confidence in Robert as a ruler and arranged for
Rufus to succeed him on the throne of England. Then, when Rufus died in
1100, Henry was on the scene. He seized the royal treasury instantly and
had himself crowned within three days.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
Robert was on his way back from crusade. Insisting that the crown was
rightfully his, he won support from prominent figures in Normandy and
England, including <strong>Ranulf Flambard</strong>, Bishop of Durham
and a favourite of Rufus. Henry had incarcerated the bishop in the Tower
of London, but in February 1101 he got his guards drunk, shinned down a
rope and got away to Normandy. Duke Robert gathered an army, with which
he crossed the Channel to Portsmouth in July. Henry meanwhile had
expected him at Pevensey where he had assembled his English troops, whom
he personally instructed in the art of resisting Norman cavalry.<br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Robert-of-Normandy-Siege-of-Antioch-1097-1098.jpg"><img alt="" class="aligncenter wp-image-1240" height="420" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Robert-of-Normandy-Siege-of-Antioch-1097-1098.jpg" title="Robert of Normandy Siege of Antioch 1097-1098" width="432" /></a><em> </em></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<em>Robert Curthose in the Siege of Antioch</em></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
Robert headed towards London and was intercepted by Henry at Alton in
Hampshire. Henry persuaded Robert to renounce his claim to England in
return for a pension of 3,000 marks a year and the abandonment of any
claim on Henry’s part to Normandy. It was agreed that no action would be
taken against the Duke’s supporters and Flambard was duly restored to
his see, though it is noticeable that from then on he took care to spend
almost his entire time in Normandy.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Robert-Duke-of-Normandy-in-prison.jpg"><img alt="" class="aligncenter wp-image-1241" height="540" src="http://www.historynotes.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Robert-Duke-of-Normandy-in-prison.jpg" title="Robert Duke of Normandy in prison" width="450" /></a> <em> </em></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<em>Robert, Duke of Normandy (1054-1134), the eldest son of William the Conqueror, was imprisoned by his own brother, Henry</em></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
Robert had been outmanoeuvred. Henry soon stopped paying the pension,
found ingenious ways to punish his brother’s supporters and presently
intervened in Normandy, ostensibly to protect the churches there against
oppression. He conquered the duchy and during the campaign captured
Robert, who spent the last twenty-eight years of his life as a prisoner
in a succession of castles. He was treated with reasonable humanity and
eked out his last years in Cardiff Castle, where he learned Welsh and
wrote at least one poem in the language. It contains the line ‘Woe to
him that is not old enough to die.’ Die he did, eventually, in 1134 at
the age of eighty.<br />
<br />
source: <a href="http://www.historynotes.info/robert-curthose-invasion-of-england-in-1101-1238/" target="_blank">The History Notes</a></div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-47381366501926401492011-11-27T15:55:00.001+01:002012-01-09T20:32:54.775+01:00This Blog became the Website<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;">This blog continue to exist as the website</span></div>
<div style="color: #6fa8dc; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.historynotes.info/"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>The History Notes </b></span></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;">on the <span style="color: #6fa8dc;">new location</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<img alt="" height="120" 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width="640" /> </div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;">If you liked this blog, you are very welcome to visit </span></div>
<div style="color: #cc0000; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><a href="http://www.historynotes.info/">The History Notes</a></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;">There you can find all old posts and also a lot of new</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>Thank you !!</b></span></div>
</div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-73434505292028365002011-11-24T10:27:00.000+01:002011-11-24T10:27:36.580+01:00Manchester Martyrs<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:HyphenationZone>21</w:HyphenationZone> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>SR</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal">In September 1867, Colonel <b>Thomas Kelly</b> and Captain <b>Timothy Deasy</b> were arrested in the centre of Manchester on suspicion of terrorism. News of their arrest was immediately sent to Mr. Disraeli, the Prime Minister, as Colonel Kelly was the most prominent Fenian of them all, having only recently been confirmed as Chief Executive of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and as such was considered quite a capture. A few days later the both prisoners were conveyed from the Court House in Manchester to the County Jail on Hyde Road, West Gorton. They were handcuffed and locked in two separate compartments inside the Police van, there was a posse of 12 policemen to escort them.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEig5Oz8Ka1ByOo2S81oCuviCRJ_n143IZsqXY58oa8rdnbfKTmTRE5LgP18SsNbsMrS4Pic3ckJc83F_p2nV3NWo3lt3o1AOlQ_q714Y_ZsB0FGtfPiCkLmpdKfnJuH5G9OmY-8RHphMWEn/s1600/martyrs6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEig5Oz8Ka1ByOo2S81oCuviCRJ_n143IZsqXY58oa8rdnbfKTmTRE5LgP18SsNbsMrS4Pic3ckJc83F_p2nV3NWo3lt3o1AOlQ_q714Y_ZsB0FGtfPiCkLmpdKfnJuH5G9OmY-8RHphMWEn/s400/martyrs6.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><a name='more'></a><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"> On the way, a man was show up into the middle of the road, pointed a pistol at the driver and called on him to stop. At the same time, a party of about thirty men surrounded the van and seized the horses, one of which they shot. The police being unharmed offered little resistance, and were soon put to flight. Sergeant <b>Charles Brett</b>, who was at the back of the van with prisoners, refused to open the door, so one of the rescuers placed his revolver at the keyhole of the van and fired, at that moment Sergeant Brett had put his eye to the keyhole to see what was going on outside, the bullet passed through his eye and killed him immediately. The door was opened from the inside and Colonel Kelly and Captain Deasy escaped, never to be recaptured (despite a reward of £300<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>or £19,000 as of 2011).</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXTcRfhzPyKofAK37BL4T28CA3HozesvhuYRFd898bQpFMIZB2GEWF2wo-ZD6mZOuIJbxM_G01XfimZvylFt01ii2zUHEeaj7873sj3n2QDf4Icdni2hK8690rqKBkhVyjEIaAesSlbrdz/s1600/martyrs1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="262" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXTcRfhzPyKofAK37BL4T28CA3HozesvhuYRFd898bQpFMIZB2GEWF2wo-ZD6mZOuIJbxM_G01XfimZvylFt01ii2zUHEeaj7873sj3n2QDf4Icdni2hK8690rqKBkhVyjEIaAesSlbrdz/s400/martyrs1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Other casualties were a police officer shot in the thigh, and a civilian shot in the foot. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The police organize the chase, and 29 people were <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>arrested, including, they claimed, the three men who had fired the revolvers. By November, five of the men arrested for taking part in the rescue. <span style="mso-fareast-language: SR;">The case against </span><b>William O'Mera Allen</b>, <b>Michael Larkin</b>; <b>William Gould</b> alias O'Brien, <b>Thomas Maguire</b> and <b>Edward Stone</b> was heard first. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhiArn_qqylkcY5mlkxPiXM55kl5SJ8gZHC005WPJu_EiQM8K9irrLUl4Gu1npqfIRoYCGeZr9SSL-lsSis7mw0ico3tYVh-DnadVgatu7dQW3G0mhIhF7QlfJ99txad-u8-x6VMXGHjZS/s1600/martyrs3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhiArn_qqylkcY5mlkxPiXM55kl5SJ8gZHC005WPJu_EiQM8K9irrLUl4Gu1npqfIRoYCGeZr9SSL-lsSis7mw0ico3tYVh-DnadVgatu7dQW3G0mhIhF7QlfJ99txad-u8-x6VMXGHjZS/s400/martyrs3.jpg" width="303" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><span style="mso-fareast-language: SR;"></span> <div class="MsoNormal">Allen was a 19-year-old carpenter; Larkin was a tailor, the only married member of the group, and had four children. O'Brien, who had fought in the American Civil War, was a 30-year-old shop assistant from <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">County Cork</span>. O'Meagher Condon, born in Cork and 32-years-old, had also fought for the Union side in the American Civil War. Thomas Maguire was a Royal Marine who had served for 10 years and had just returned home on leave. <span style="mso-fareast-language: SR;">It was argued that the case should not be heard in Manchester or anywhere in Lancashire. That was rejected and the trial proceeded. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEix-uckOz4hjL8Z0RQkmYH_kMnTLZLsNnOTGvgbUJTGu4Yfr9NUIPhhyphenhyphenfJfg8-G-HTK97_lBfSQD1wwjPWnOyt6Pw6nunChnAP40hXkfaPRHlpm0wcHedhfEcXNN53pB88nloocB-InQUHX/s1600/martyrs5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEix-uckOz4hjL8Z0RQkmYH_kMnTLZLsNnOTGvgbUJTGu4Yfr9NUIPhhyphenhyphenfJfg8-G-HTK97_lBfSQD1wwjPWnOyt6Pw6nunChnAP40hXkfaPRHlpm0wcHedhfEcXNN53pB88nloocB-InQUHX/s400/martyrs5.jpg" width="288" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span>At times it was very fractious, the details of which can be read elsewhere. This trail concluded on Friday November 1st 1867. The others were tried in small batches before different juries although the legal teams and many of the witnesses were same in all the trials.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-language: SR;"></span><span style="mso-fareast-language: SR;"> After the verdict each of the five were asked if they had anything to say why sentence should not be passed against him. Allen stated that he was not William O'Meara (O'Mara in the prison register) Allen, but William Phillip Allen of Omara, County Cork. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><object width="320" height="266" class="BLOGGER-youtube-video" classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,40,0" data-thumbnail-src="http://0.gvt0.com/vi/6T_uJUmw_kQ/0.jpg"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/6T_uJUmw_kQ&fs=1&source=uds" /><param name="bgcolor" value="#FFFFFF" /><embed width="320" height="266" src="http://www.youtube.com/v/6T_uJUmw_kQ&fs=1&source=uds" type="application/x-shockwave-flash"></embed></object></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-language: SR;"></span> </div><div class="MsoNormal">All<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>5 men were convicted and sentenced to death. Maguire was soon after pardoned and discharged, Stone's sentence was commuted on the eve before the day fixed for his execution. Larkin, Allen and O'Brien were publicly hanged on the 23rd of November, 1867. Most accounts claim that Allen died almost instantly from a broken neck, but Larkin and O'Brien were not so fortunate. <b>Father Gadd</b>, reported that:</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><blockquote class="tr_bq"><div class="MsoNormal"><i>„The other two ropes, stretched taut and tense by their breathing twitching burdens, were in ominous and distracting movement. The hangman had bungled! ... Calcraft then descended into the pit and there finished what he could not accomplish from above. </i><i>He killed Larkin.“</i></div></blockquote><div class="MsoNormal">There has been speculation as to what happened to the remains of the Manchester Martyrs and the other prisoners executed at Manchester. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVvGwPrTD_PpcgmYLKgVnrRA3qpSDTCiXKmr4i4sMSme7Q5XpfC4TMSh_iEhD0q6vFxudebU0YCvC4tJmRB68xIuu_MOltL3YuQjuAxEGIGu6utZcdJcbKjsvTtuWmk6L7YER9rgGD9qhg/s1600/martyrs8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVvGwPrTD_PpcgmYLKgVnrRA3qpSDTCiXKmr4i4sMSme7Q5XpfC4TMSh_iEhD0q6vFxudebU0YCvC4tJmRB68xIuu_MOltL3YuQjuAxEGIGu6utZcdJcbKjsvTtuWmk6L7YER9rgGD9qhg/s400/martyrs8.jpg" width="270" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The box made from a piece of one of the Beams of the Scaffold on which the three Fenians were Hanged at Salford</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">What the register does not make clear is that all the men who were sentenced to 5 years had actually been cleared of the murder charges. They were charged with the misdemeanours of assaulting police officers in the execution of their duty and riot. They received the maximum possible sentences.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLjbqZIZSgPMFGSiVUYecWospMHRkt_QKU7p9zJqI5Jj_HCPOCW_xAHQe7D7_O5XZ_mRwsKFjXQADx41JDKTsR36vpmWMcgkf9zMo_ErhmXmoT2SmljJ2UVdN2YMWgJc_XyUA0WBD-oz2d/s1600/martyrs2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="281" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLjbqZIZSgPMFGSiVUYecWospMHRkt_QKU7p9zJqI5Jj_HCPOCW_xAHQe7D7_O5XZ_mRwsKFjXQADx41JDKTsR36vpmWMcgkf9zMo_ErhmXmoT2SmljJ2UVdN2YMWgJc_XyUA0WBD-oz2d/s400/martyrs2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Their execution produced a great wave of sympathy for the „Manchester Martyrs“. The alleged last words of the executed men, „God Save Ireland“, were later made into a song by <b>T. D. Sullivan</b>. Charles Brett was the first <i><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Manchester City Police</span></i> officer <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to be killed on duty, and he is memorialised in a monument in <span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">St Ann's Church</span>. Allen, Larkin, and O'Brien are also memorialised, both in Manchester – where the Irish community made up more than 10 percent of the population – and in Ireland, where they were regarded by many as inspirational heroes. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-2992669908226965792011-11-23T23:28:00.002+01:002011-11-24T00:20:18.435+01:00Place to Visit: Eastnor Castle, UK<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Eastnor was built by the<b> 2<sup>nd</sup> Baron (Lord) Somers</b>, later 1<sup>st</sup> Earl, between 1810 and 1824. The combination of inherited wealth, his judicious marriage to the daughter of the eminent and rich Worcestershire historian, <b>Rev. Treadway Russell Nash</b>, and his great ambition prompted the 1<sup>st</sup> earl to commission a castle to impress his contemporaries and raise his family into the higher ranks of the ruling class. Then, as now, the size and splendour of a country house evidenced the standing and fortune of any family.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkfGxqspCChQKtWqkKyqT1wpdOJevWiK_oTub4mzHGtbU_brUfsd4cDfb8U19iYbMDi_OmjrIXnlduiOSiH9XefAUyxQX7wdlA0sHPPW2a1qqt7-B5RfwiFwp1reSTkrxELsaeRe9VGTRc/s1600/IMG_9862.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkfGxqspCChQKtWqkKyqT1wpdOJevWiK_oTub4mzHGtbU_brUfsd4cDfb8U19iYbMDi_OmjrIXnlduiOSiH9XefAUyxQX7wdlA0sHPPW2a1qqt7-B5RfwiFwp1reSTkrxELsaeRe9VGTRc/s400/IMG_9862.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">His architect, the young<b> Robert Smirke</b>, who was later well known for his design for the British Museum, proposed a Norman Revival style. From a distance, Eastnor tried to create the impression of an Edward Ist-style medieval fortress guarding the Welsh Borders. It was a symbolic a defiant assertion of power by an aristocrat in a period of fear and uncertainty following the French Revolution and during the Napoleonic Wars.</span></div><a name='more'></a><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">By most standards, the castle is massive, and the construction team and materials used were on a similar scale. 250 men working day and night were employed over the first six years of building., and in the first 18 months 4,000 tonsof building stone, 16,000 tons of mortar and 600 tons of wood were used. Stone came from sandstone quarries in the Forest of Dean by canal to Ledbury and thence by mule. Estate timber was used as much as possible, but the major roof trusses and beams were cast iron, then relatively new material for building.</span><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYTLnIhxOsBNnhqCJPy3I6tGFTL4k-ti2EiyooEQ0IpFMRIaSrnJOoNM5dJm0-mJFkdVtaDCEQGfVdbZnlMoQ6p0zqGtsArlq5EQ9MO1e6_VuqTtiuByiviJ8cEWbPneXFgJFtq42BuV6u/s1600/IMG_9902.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYTLnIhxOsBNnhqCJPy3I6tGFTL4k-ti2EiyooEQ0IpFMRIaSrnJOoNM5dJm0-mJFkdVtaDCEQGfVdbZnlMoQ6p0zqGtsArlq5EQ9MO1e6_VuqTtiuByiviJ8cEWbPneXFgJFtq42BuV6u/s400/IMG_9902.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The castle cost 85,923,13s 11d to built: the estimated cost of rebuilding the house in 2009 would be over 30 million pounds. Later plans to built an orangery next to the servants’ wing were dropped because of a shortage of funds. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWHBX5PWpCmR4Etb5zI9-G7kHTcfQf8CqidNo-NmIlTuolFdOibV4uFUylTvxz89IMxLY5_LqPN4RvDpbew_beTdq1fDakDS4WIW_rMy3tYiEExZL-dm3_XR8bLaQAHZENIdYYrS3y7iBP/s1600/IMG_9850.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWHBX5PWpCmR4Etb5zI9-G7kHTcfQf8CqidNo-NmIlTuolFdOibV4uFUylTvxz89IMxLY5_LqPN4RvDpbew_beTdq1fDakDS4WIW_rMy3tYiEExZL-dm3_XR8bLaQAHZENIdYYrS3y7iBP/s400/IMG_9850.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Smirke’s interior were simple and in keeping with the external medieval style: architectural details remain in the Red Hall, Dinning Room and Staircase Hall. In 1849, the 2<sup>nd</sup> earl commissioned <b>A W N Pugin,</b> well known for designing the Gothic interiors of the Palace of Westminster after the fire of 1834, to redecorate his Drawing Room in the more elaborate Gothic Revival style, before<b> Charles, 3<sup>rd</sup> Earl Somers</b>, undertook further decorating work in the 1860s and 1870s, so Eastnor, possibly in a unique way, epitomises three successive phases of 19<sup>th</sup> century domestic taste, Regency Baronial, Catholic Gothic and Aesthetic Italian. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is possible to trace the evolution of taste through the Victorian period, ending in the Long Library and the State Bedroom, when the fashion had reverted to the Renaissance period. But as the Gothic Drawing Room represented the latest style in its time, it confirms that Charles, who was instrumental in his father’s decision to commission Pugin, was at the forefront of contemporary taste even before he inherited the estate. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDdMdQrI5tJFzJNCYDU_D0KIaG7UQuE6Bkj3dsI4skS3Kde73ghkXbTRe6jjCnKVNyXKoomV2VuE1VZBzwlewLu9D7QPcxA37nucb_MivvDL05E8w5ryb91FJSgHRDCoRt8Pp477JToqZa/s1600/eastnor+castle+1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDdMdQrI5tJFzJNCYDU_D0KIaG7UQuE6Bkj3dsI4skS3Kde73ghkXbTRe6jjCnKVNyXKoomV2VuE1VZBzwlewLu9D7QPcxA37nucb_MivvDL05E8w5ryb91FJSgHRDCoRt8Pp477JToqZa/s400/eastnor+castle+1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The Octagon Saloon, by contrast, was classical in design and originally decorated in cream and crimson silk, hung with classical prints and filled with Louis XVI furniture. It exhibited the top end of more conventional English good taste. The Chinese Bedroom, although quite different in style, also reflect the enduring English love of the Orient.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Developing out of an interest in classical antiquities collected in Mesopotamia and his love of the Mediterranean, Charles started buying 17<sup>th</sup> century Italian furniture, Flemish tapestries, medieval armour and 15<sup>th</sup> century art of Rennaisance. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzmUzGlK7fPcmHjTfICv5yJHd57s54XKb0v2ZTNtvYpqOSpoeRGagm7VaiI0ZAbyHQ-GQ3M6PX9dxDtgxeglzHJJrWQKuf6gjW-urB9qKholuZSZQ6NbdjQ74KeENyrTGFsqkj6RmwOLRl/s1600/eastnor+castle+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzmUzGlK7fPcmHjTfICv5yJHd57s54XKb0v2ZTNtvYpqOSpoeRGagm7VaiI0ZAbyHQ-GQ3M6PX9dxDtgxeglzHJJrWQKuf6gjW-urB9qKholuZSZQ6NbdjQ74KeENyrTGFsqkj6RmwOLRl/s400/eastnor+castle+2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the 1860s and 1870s the 3<sup>rd</sup> Earl Somers planted the arboretum, bringing back seed from all over the world. Of particular interest are the cedars, bu the areas of the surrounding hills were also planted with exotic trees to enhance the romanting setting. The 300 acre Deer Park runs up to the Malvern Hills and encloses a herd of red deer. Their proximity to the house is intended to enhance the impression of medieval authenticity and splendour at Eastnor. The lower part of the Park is used for caravan rallies nd other events, including the Big Chill Festival and adventure training.</span></div></div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-56353373785061781992011-11-19T21:40:00.002+01:002011-11-19T21:46:10.088+01:00Thomas Müntzer and Peasants' War<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">Peasant-plebeian movement in Reformation strongest was expressed in the Anabaptist movement and the <b>Peasants' War</b> in Germany 1524-1525. Peasants and urban population (plebs) could not accept Lutheranism and princely Reformation. There were a new sects in the Reformation movement. Anabaptists (re-baptized because they required re-baptism in the mature years of life) were particularly disseminated in the plebeian classes. Some revolutionary Anabaptists preached the abolition of private property and common property.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8vADjxfKAC0GJZGgGPcZZdwMBiI_o3XuJSxRfTrPlYqN6OsaQKxulosiNVXPq5z9YMA_ONCq57V2UDINcuu9nPfyP1IUP1JsPJz7YBAfq4T4sRTFzdsPj4ABF_oFE5ikrl2SrFBuubaxj/s1600/the+war.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8vADjxfKAC0GJZGgGPcZZdwMBiI_o3XuJSxRfTrPlYqN6OsaQKxulosiNVXPq5z9YMA_ONCq57V2UDINcuu9nPfyP1IUP1JsPJz7YBAfq4T4sRTFzdsPj4ABF_oFE5ikrl2SrFBuubaxj/s400/the+war.gif" width="400" /></a></div><br />
Among these Anabaptists in Zwickau came preacher <b>Thomas Mü</b><b>ntzer </b>and committed to them a strong influence. Spoke out strongly against <b>Luther </b>- "fat skin from Wittenberg," as he called it - as Luther put faith in the defense of private property and wealth. Müntzer was against the nobility, against feudalism, against class society and the authorities and called for the armed struggle against the utilization of people. Nobles and priests must leave the castles and palaces, begin to live in ordinary houses and live like all other people.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Thomas Müntzer</td></tr>
</tbody></table>His teachings have been shaped by his religious sermons with quotations from the Bible. He quickly became a leader of the Peasant Movement in Reformation, but, along with his followers, was expelled from Zwickau. The group was later dispersed all over Germany, but continued to spread its revolutionary impact. When the Zwickau authorities expelled Müntzer in April 1521, he fled to Prague. He was initially feted in the town when he arrived in June, welcomed as a follower of Luther, with accommodation provided for him and invitations to preach in Latin and German in the University chapels. For unknown reasons, however, by November he was far less welcome. That month he wrote the <i>Prague Manifesto.</i><br />
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<b>Peasants' War 1524 - 1525</b><br />
<i> </i><br />
The German <b>Peasants' War</b> followed earlier peasants' uprisings from the end of the 15th and early 16th century. The uprisings broke out almost simultaneously in three areas - Swabia, Franconia and Thuringia-Saxony - but were not related. The peasants were non-unique in their demands, because the wealthy farmers access negotiations with the<b> Swabian League</b> of cities and nobles. The peasants met again on 15 and 20 March 1525 in Memmingen and, after some additional deliberation, adopted the <b>Twelve Articles</b> and the Federal Order (<i>Bundesordnung</i>). Their banner, the <i>Bundschuh</i>, or a laced boot, served as the emblem of their agreement. These Twelve Articles were printed over 25,000 times in the next two months, and quickly spread throughout Germany.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Martin Luther meets peasants</td></tr>
</tbody></table>The Twelve Articles iterated specific community rights, largely relating to community self-governance. These included the right to retain or remove the community's pastor, the limitation of tithes and what the tax will pay for, the expansion of hunting, fishing and gathering rights, the establishment of fair and usual leases, rents, and payments, and the elimination of the <i>Todfall</i>, or death tax.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Twelve Articles</td></tr>
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Swabian League had its own army whose commander was <b>Georg Truchsess</b>. He took advantage of the lack of unity and division among uprisers and bring to the end the uprising in Swabia. Relatively easy his army put down the uprisings in other areas. Peasants' army was losing one battle after another. On 29 April 1525, the peasant grumbling and protests in and around Frankenhausen culminated into an open revolt. Large parts of the citizenry joined the uprising.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaswnZmuZVtj1pyB7sTANfIFpBZ9GjkQ-K57aA9uAunJ4D6BgW-GA4Jb_sPCGTC_qUznIZRDYhuWETp27MRtTAxmLpGmKmbruAX_WVPaoiNyi-nX9O-PiPBVggLl6NGhkz3yYD1UKaJLBD/s1600/Bauernjoerg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaswnZmuZVtj1pyB7sTANfIFpBZ9GjkQ-K57aA9uAunJ4D6BgW-GA4Jb_sPCGTC_qUznIZRDYhuWETp27MRtTAxmLpGmKmbruAX_WVPaoiNyi-nX9O-PiPBVggLl6NGhkz3yYD1UKaJLBD/s400/Bauernjoerg.jpg" width="277" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Georg Truchsess von Waldburg, called Bauernjoerg</td></tr>
</tbody></table>When Thomas Müntzer arrived with 300 fighters from Mühlhausen on 11 May, several thousands more peasants of the surrounding estates camped on the fields and pastures: the final strength of the peasant and town force is unclear, but estimated at 8,000–10,000. The Princes' troops included close to 6,000 mercenaries, the Landsknecht. As such they were well equipped, well trained and had good morale.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The arms used by peasants' army</td></tr>
</tbody></table>They were also experienced. The peasants, on the other hand, had poor, if any, equipment, and except for those 300 fighters who had arrived with Müntzer, many had neither experience nor training. The peasants were caught off guard and fled in panic to the town, followed and continuously attacked by the mercenaries. Most of the insurgents were slain in what turned out to be a massacre. Casualty figures are unreliable but peasant losses have been estimated at 3,000–10,000.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The massacre at Weisenberg</td></tr>
</tbody></table>Utterly defeated, captured, imprisoned and tortured, Müntzer recanted and accepted the Roman Catholic mass prior to his beheading in Mühlhausen in Thuringia on 27 May 1525. Under torture he confessed that he believed that <i>omnia sunt communia</i>, all things are in common. His head and body were displayed as a warning to all those who might again preach treasonous doctrines. <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Jakob Rohrbach, one of uprising leaders, captured and punished</td></tr>
</tbody></table>Revolutionary Anabaptist ideology is spread even after the end of Peasants' uprisings. It is particularly fertile ground found among craftsmen in the Netherlands and northwestern Germany. Anabaptists in the Netherlands will play important role decades later in the bourgeois revolution. Under the influence of Dutch experience, citizens of Munster in northwestern Germany, expelled their bishop and declared the commune in the period from 1534 to 1535. They have abolished money and tried to introduce equality in consumption goods. For 14 months they resisted the bishop's army.<br />
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</div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-42177703657194914572011-11-18T19:58:00.001+01:002011-11-18T20:00:54.104+01:00The Third Crusade: Richard The Lionheart in comparison with other crusaders<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><b>The allure of Jerusalem</b><br />
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<b>King Richard I </b>of England twice marched inland from the Palestinian coast towards Jerusalem, reaching the small dismantled fortress at Beit Nuba, just 12 miles from the Holy City - in December 1191 and gain in June 1192.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Christian warrior against the Muslim</td></tr>
</tbody></table>On both occasions the Lionheart probably had little or no intention of actually prosecuting an attack on the city - instead these were feints, designed to test <b>Saladin</b>'s resolve and to augment diplomatic negotiations. In all this, the king followed the best precepts of medieval generalship, but he failed to account for the distinct nature of crusading warfare - species of conflict underpinned by religious ideology and dependent upon the overwhelming devotional allure of Jerusalem. <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Saladin</td></tr>
</tbody></table>By twice retreating from the Holy City, he shattered the morale and resolve of his troops, effectively ending any hope of future success. By contrast, the First Crusaders risked everything to besiege Jerusalem nearly a century earlier. Driven on by a seemingly unbreakable sense of spiritual self belief, they threw caution to the wind and, despite the threat of impending annihilation at the hands of a massive Egyptian relief army, conquered the Holy City on 15th July 1099.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Frederick II of Germany</td></tr>
</tbody></table><b>The role of diplomacy</b><br />
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Jerusalem was not recovered for Christendom until the crusade of <b>Emperor Frederick II of Germany</b> in 1229 (land even then it was only held for 15 years). Much has been made of the fact that Frederick used diplomacy rather than military force to secure possessions of the Holy City. In fact, Frederick's methods and objectives bear close comparison to those employed by Richard I during the Third Crusade.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Crusade battle</td></tr>
</tbody></table>Like Frederick II, the Lionheart was a remarkably adept and guileful negotiator who actively pursued diplomatic contact with his Muslim enemies throughout his campaign. Richard came close to brokering his own deal for Jerusalem's repatriation and even considered marrying sister Joanne to Saladin's brother to create a jointly ruled realm.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Siege of Jerusalem 1099</td></tr>
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</div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-52846920258193228422011-11-13T14:12:00.000+01:002012-01-29T18:08:00.824+01:00King Charles’ II Flight after the Battle of Worcester<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US">On Friday 5<sup>th</sup> of September 1651 the future king <a href="http://www.historynotes.info/king-charles%E2%80%99-ii-flight-after-the-battle-of-worcester-107/"><b>Charles II</b></a> hid in a Shropshire barn. It was <b>Francis Wolfe</b> of madley who provided this shelter from imprisonment and death, as Charles fled from defeat at the <i>Battle of Worcester</i>. Years later, after his restoration to the throne, the king gave a magnificent silver tankard to the Wolfe family in recognition of their kindness and bravery in concealing him. <i>“King Charles’ barn”</i> still stands in Madeley today.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">King Charles II of England</td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US"></span><b><span lang="EN-US">What actually happened?</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">After his campaign went badly and finally finished at Worcester in 1651, Charles fled north out the Worcester and rode through the night, arriving in Shropshire on the morning of Thursday 4<sup>th</sup>. One of his companions advised him to make for <i>“White Ladies”</i>, a large timber-framed house on the site of a medieval nunnery. The property was owned by a Catholic family sympathetic to the Royal cause. The owners were away, but luckily for Charles, their servants the<b> Penderel family</b> were staunchly Royalist. </span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Richard Penderel</td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US">They gave Charles some bread and cheese, disguised him as a woodcutter and hid him in <i>Spring Coppice</i>, a nearby wood. Just an hour later a company of parliamentary soldiers arrived and searched the area but failed to find the royal fugitive. Thet evening Charles travelled with <b>Richard Penderel</b> to <i>Hobbal Grange</i> where Richard lived with his mother, Jane. They ate a meal and set off westward.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Penderel grant, 1675. Letters Patent of Charles II granted at Westminster 24 July 1675 in generous recognition of the help given by the Penderel family </td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US">Charles hoped to cross the River Severn and make for a Welsh port to sail to France. The pair headed for madeley, planning to cross the River at a ferry point, probably near Coalport. They had a scare at <i>Evelith Mill</i> (near Kemberton) where they ewre challenged by the miller and ran away down a “very deep and very dirty lane” and hid behind a hedge in fear of pursuit. </span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">King Charles II disguised to woodcutter</td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US">They arrived in Madeley early on the Friday 5<sup>th</sup> September and made for <i>Upper House</i>, home of Francis Wolfe, a Roman Catholic known for his Royalist sympathies. According to the King’s own account, dictated to diarist <b>Samuel Pepys</b> 30 years later, Richard Penderel asked Francis Wolfe to shelter “<i>one that had escaped from the battle of Worcester”</i> Wolfe replied <i>“I would not venture my neck for any man unless it was the King himself”</i>, Penderel now revealed the true identity of his companion, and Wolfe offered to <i>“venture all he had in the world to secure him”.</i></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Upper House barn, or The King's barn, today</td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US">Wolfe was concerned that <i>Upper House</i> might be searched by the many Parliamentarian troops in the area because of his Catholic allegiance so Charles and Richard hid in the estate barn for all of that day. </span> <br />
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<span lang="EN-US">That evening they decided there were too many soldiers to risk the river crossing and instead they headed back east. This time they made for <i>Boscobel House</i>, another property in the care of the Penderel family. Charles arrived at Boscobel on Saturday 6<sup>th</sup> September and was obliged to spend most of the day hiding in the now famous<i> “Royal Oak”</i> while soldiers scoured the woods for escaped Royalists from the Battle. He was able to return to the house for the night and left on Sunday evening for <i>Moseley Old Hall</i> near Wolverhampton.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Charles later made it to Bristol, disguised as the groom of Mistress <i>Jane Lane</i> of Bentley Hall, Staffordshire. After Many more adventures he eventually left British shores from the south coast in October 1651, in the coal brig Surprise to seek shelter in France. Here he remained in exile until 1660 when Parliament invited him back to resume the throne.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijwiMob71HEQooYbepw4RVl5GY-xly6P7CQOmWmN30cVAx64APhjjK82otkkYK-LzfgN95LfGqR9UVyWTaJNX89zrkdolua6C3nJjPNE-AZ4xiXGfR2d0Qt0vyuY9Lpen_emD_-l6z3Qlt/s1600/Charles+and+Jane+by+Isaac+Fuller.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="358" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijwiMob71HEQooYbepw4RVl5GY-xly6P7CQOmWmN30cVAx64APhjjK82otkkYK-LzfgN95LfGqR9UVyWTaJNX89zrkdolua6C3nJjPNE-AZ4xiXGfR2d0Qt0vyuY9Lpen_emD_-l6z3Qlt/s400/Charles+and+Jane+by+Isaac+Fuller.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The King and Jane Lane heading the coast</td></tr>
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</div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-13749070235722446302011-11-07T00:12:00.000+01:002011-11-07T00:12:35.976+01:00Operation "Flaming Dart"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuNXwjdnaQnmVKhyphenhyphenSLvNH1oGxZPnSak5En0-HIpbp0LBrhsLAHF_j0e8r0erx9ToMObXIu8pxHC4CbGkwA-Vgn8lhCPU5QnTFnMG2Ngz0zDmyrGtUJhpekOlteqE0aMh-5I4cihfM2X-Yv/s1600/b52s+dropping+bombs+vietnam+war.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuNXwjdnaQnmVKhyphenhyphenSLvNH1oGxZPnSak5En0-HIpbp0LBrhsLAHF_j0e8r0erx9ToMObXIu8pxHC4CbGkwA-Vgn8lhCPU5QnTFnMG2Ngz0zDmyrGtUJhpekOlteqE0aMh-5I4cihfM2X-Yv/s400/b52s+dropping+bombs+vietnam+war.png" width="328" /></a></div>Operation <i>Flaming Dart</i> was America’s response in 1965 to North Vietnamese attacks on US bases in South Vietnam. Operation Flaming Dart commenced in February 1965 and was ordered by US President <b>Lyndon B Johnson</b>. After a series of attacks on US bases in South Vietnam, mainly the base at <i>Pleiku</i>, Johnson ordered a series of air attacks on North Vietnamese bases in an attempt to warn off the government in <i>Hanoi</i>. <br />
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On February 7th 1965 the US base at Camp Holloway was attacked by the Viet Cong. Camp Holloway was near to the South Vietnamese town of <i>Pleiku</i>. Eight US soldiers were killed with over 100 injured. Johnson had two choices. He could both ignore it and treat the attack as a minor one that would not lead to an escalation in terms of the scale of attacks on US bases. Alternately, he could, as commander-in-chief of US forces, order a major military response in a show of power that the Hanoi government would have to respond to. The US military had already selected a number of military targets in North Vietnam and Johnson opted for the second option – though there is little evidence that Johnson was willing to try the diplomatic approach at this moment in time.<br />
<a name='more'></a>Within twelve hours of the attack on <i>Camp Holloway,</i> Johnson ordered aircraft from the carriers ‘USS Coral Sea’ and ‘USS Hancock’ (both based off the coast of North Vietnam) to attack the <i>Vit Thu Lu</i> military barracks and the ports at <i>Dong Hoi</i>. Combined with these attacks, aircraft from the Da Nang base in South Vietnam attacked communication centres in the North.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihApqejDHJh4cDSn-33ugwyIC7ol09GszZri3oXdb2mwR3TrjSiDgIcoXzHoxWIH3pUZRNJt0RM3ShK3LJBaZ9GvtPjHYJVipIgCp2WO-PA-Pz0pAkTOaA0ivpmN7EFAhwl-JkOc-b-hOi/s1600/images.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="327" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihApqejDHJh4cDSn-33ugwyIC7ol09GszZri3oXdb2mwR3TrjSiDgIcoXzHoxWIH3pUZRNJt0RM3ShK3LJBaZ9GvtPjHYJVipIgCp2WO-PA-Pz0pAkTOaA0ivpmN7EFAhwl-JkOc-b-hOi/s400/images.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br />
These attacks were meant to be a show of strength from the US military. The main aim was to convince <i>Ho Chi Minh</i> that America’s huge military capability made opposition to it untenable. General Maxwell told the Senate’s Foreign Relations Committee that the bombing raids of Operation Flaming Dart were meant, “to change the will of the enemy leadership”.<br />
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Three days later 23 US military personnel were killed and 22 injured in a bomb attack at barracks in Qui Nhon. Johnson ordered<i> Flaming Dart II</i>. US aircraft attacked a barracks at <i>Chanh Hoa</i>. Johnson stated that the attacks were in response to “continued aggression”. The use of such a phrase gave Johnson the opportunity to justify what was to be known as <i>‘Operation Rolling Thunder</i>’ – a bombing campaign against the North that was to meant to last eight weeks but lasted for over three years. <br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhg0XtggoDGrknXhB0Ikqv9hmzcn4z0UGJxval3VwGdLpyRyJ2iubfoRLvqfE1xCuWdZ-_e3qm8UKejB2f1zVr2y0hZ3H3HraR0L0hedURphwoJMe9mYZQc9ng4xvSu0I-0gv33g8DexBTL/s1600/McNamaraWestmorelandNationalArchivesDOD.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhg0XtggoDGrknXhB0Ikqv9hmzcn4z0UGJxval3VwGdLpyRyJ2iubfoRLvqfE1xCuWdZ-_e3qm8UKejB2f1zVr2y0hZ3H3HraR0L0hedURphwoJMe9mYZQc9ng4xvSu0I-0gv33g8DexBTL/s400/McNamaraWestmorelandNationalArchivesDOD.jpg" width="398" /></a></div><br />
During Operation Dart 1, US aircraft flew 49 sorties. During Operation Dart II, 99 sorties were flown.<br />
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</div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-87993884333044743352011-11-05T09:58:00.000+01:002011-11-05T09:58:20.008+01:00The horse in Middle Ages<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The horse was an integral and essential component of medieval existence. Horses were needed for tournaments, for hunting, for pleasure, for travel, for transport and haulage, for agricultural work, and for war.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsCWi-jrwEA1FOn8_PaTJ-eHPCTN9JtZB_tcUawH2tcmpwvywCzxmlh4xqQvJrvGgS93TARyw7b8JgYwZp2LJouH1c0LZczPLDfxFzY-E9B0oSFb-fzG6X2Xb7UljJEYdZdMHri3KtOP4C/s1600/5e999bd4d0aedf11b6bf95308e15eb9d.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="247" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsCWi-jrwEA1FOn8_PaTJ-eHPCTN9JtZB_tcUawH2tcmpwvywCzxmlh4xqQvJrvGgS93TARyw7b8JgYwZp2LJouH1c0LZczPLDfxFzY-E9B0oSFb-fzG6X2Xb7UljJEYdZdMHri3KtOP4C/s400/5e999bd4d0aedf11b6bf95308e15eb9d.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ladies in hunting</td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #6fa8dc;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Early uses</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #6fa8dc;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the early Middle Ages, the horse was primarily a luxurious method of travel. By the 11<sup>th</sup> century, however, horses had begun to share some of the burdens of the plow with oxen. In the 12<sup>th</sup> century, horses begun to play a more prominent role in the transport of goods; by the 13<sup>th</sup> century, horses were pulling carts, an important vehicle for road transport. Horses developed a social hierarchy as is reflected in the extensive vocabulary used to distinguish between types of horses according to purpose and quality. The noblest of the horses was undoubtedly, <i>the destrier</i>, the medieval warhorse.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_qGYOvYwVU513RqVVGXvPrzRrHyKqi2YjbifIpVuKR9tEphv8xbFyPHJ51N3nWNXDpcS53Vi9zpCOQP_3FtU1BiW6Z5mGtqbL0YdiQzNaZRe7J1LqWoy5CdaasdfycA89B2CXgj2uttTS/s1600/cart.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="241" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_qGYOvYwVU513RqVVGXvPrzRrHyKqi2YjbifIpVuKR9tEphv8xbFyPHJ51N3nWNXDpcS53Vi9zpCOQP_3FtU1BiW6Z5mGtqbL0YdiQzNaZRe7J1LqWoy5CdaasdfycA89B2CXgj2uttTS/s400/cart.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Manuscript illumination</td></tr>
</tbody></table><b style="color: #6fa8dc;"><span lang="EN-US">New breeds</span></b><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The islamic conquests of Iberia and Sicily brought desirable breeds to the West, where the indigenous breeds tended to be small ponies. The Moors introduced Spain to the Barb, the Turkmene, and the Arabian; they also used indigenous breeds, such as Andalusian. This blend of breeds has a profound effect on the development of the warhorse in western Europe.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizBIDzJRcAfqaNgIo5O54pF-_Z24kKG74UFqIpglEx_b8W1qQ260UDNdwXoUARE6gs5WwxZ8Y8xuTiTQuNPJwHyOqhk_MjXdNnBJQvhrkkoLWc1CuW3i3PwmzS0wZjaxCh4TUJ0ZBAWYL6/s1600/Botanical-Medieval-Horticultural-practices-12.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizBIDzJRcAfqaNgIo5O54pF-_Z24kKG74UFqIpglEx_b8W1qQ260UDNdwXoUARE6gs5WwxZ8Y8xuTiTQuNPJwHyOqhk_MjXdNnBJQvhrkkoLWc1CuW3i3PwmzS0wZjaxCh4TUJ0ZBAWYL6/s400/Botanical-Medieval-Horticultural-practices-12.jpg" width="377" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Farming horse in medieval time</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"></span>Quality horses were regulary imported from Spain, Lombardy, and the Low Countries for the purpose of breeding warhorses. The numbers of mounted infantry grew in the 8<sup>th</sup> and 9<sup>th</sup> centuries, and calvary came to have a major role in medieval warfare. Developments in warfare practice demanded specific developments in the horse – mainly larger horses able to support armor and sustain blows – which had to be bred and maintained. </div><span lang="EN-US"></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjry7CpPbeYGskd1_Uc1MnT8dIB9Fd9XFZpEXCxr_iau9fXRIowVsfxvuWH8RDmMYsRyX-bGefIYshPJXl00zVbrpvJ5gMlYnKVieasOTqxZ0Fa_H2tqz9UVWqs56ZBjhl1Nk2bzzE05Vw8/s1600/Tournament_bavarian_engraving.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjry7CpPbeYGskd1_Uc1MnT8dIB9Fd9XFZpEXCxr_iau9fXRIowVsfxvuWH8RDmMYsRyX-bGefIYshPJXl00zVbrpvJ5gMlYnKVieasOTqxZ0Fa_H2tqz9UVWqs56ZBjhl1Nk2bzzE05Vw8/s400/Tournament_bavarian_engraving.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Medieval tournament</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #6fa8dc;"><b><span lang="EN-US">New uses</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In late 9<sup>th</sup> century, France’s and England’s programs of warhorse acquisition and breeding were undertaken and continued into the era of the<i> Hundred Year’s War</i>. High-quality horses were imported from other countries; large horse-fairs emerged, serving to improve and distribute the animals. English and French kings imposed export restrictions in what became, in essence, a medieval arms race. The<b> Great Horse</b> of Middle Ages, which stood around 15 hands (5 feet) high, was a result of careful breeding and maintenance. It became recognized for its stamina, strength, and fierce temperament.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7K2pxalAeevh2_IB8wOvwGVFGFN1s2m2NiHqgGY0UEnZy599D3BfN_ddY5faMw3t0YCYitnaO0RTSIt50dRJTwo_tDUPAr-B4iH8CqsnpAtfURJ1dj1vqebNiBN2SB9MK5Z3oLZPt72rY/s1600/IH164122.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="317" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7K2pxalAeevh2_IB8wOvwGVFGFN1s2m2NiHqgGY0UEnZy599D3BfN_ddY5faMw3t0YCYitnaO0RTSIt50dRJTwo_tDUPAr-B4iH8CqsnpAtfURJ1dj1vqebNiBN2SB9MK5Z3oLZPt72rY/s400/IH164122.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Horse trainer</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US">The attentive breeding of warhorses had an impact on the quality of horses used for other purposes. By the 13<sup>th</sup> century, horses had become affordable and available to all classes of medieval society. In England, for example, prices of horses ranged from 2 shillings, 6 pence (8 days wages) for a peasant work horse, to 3 pounds for a riding horse (180 days), to a 100 pounds (6,000 days) or more for a destrier.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirmCsm0TFiOmPGXV_5sWqR5eZmRv2NZuXHwdKTiRNZ56pLoh9Ufknchw8KRXVn1HTgF8wfqzUwvnp3vFn-mr8Ymk8SeqENyQfv7SJCQAJ8WK9a_tCYLFkmKJ-UJjeoQLJFSToH5XtkP5Hu/s1600/Middelalderkvinner.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirmCsm0TFiOmPGXV_5sWqR5eZmRv2NZuXHwdKTiRNZ56pLoh9Ufknchw8KRXVn1HTgF8wfqzUwvnp3vFn-mr8Ymk8SeqENyQfv7SJCQAJ8WK9a_tCYLFkmKJ-UJjeoQLJFSToH5XtkP5Hu/s400/Middelalderkvinner.jpg" width="387" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Picture showing ladies riding horses a side</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Because of changes in military tactics, the decline in breeding activity, the sale of many horses abroad, and the destruction of studs and stock in wars, there was a dire shortage of horses by the close of 15<sup>th</sup> century, especially in England. The revival of conscientious horse breeding to meet new military demands had to wait until the 16th century and the reign of Henry VIII. </span></div></div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-81877478235837470622011-11-04T20:47:00.001+01:002012-02-08T20:57:56.256+01:00William Wilberforce's Mission for Humane Rights<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgrNsqQA4kxC5YkTBVInNmcuVKPPt1TJUwrQ9rFvN9yGWBhrh-3dT_hsjtoHXwL55FF7XvOQvEC2fRjLPVH75HK7oSgmqfDJOszC_9ubbvzv1KgmKQkT23YVS6ITGPKea3iLEqXQtN3Hfq/s1600/wilberforce.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgrNsqQA4kxC5YkTBVInNmcuVKPPt1TJUwrQ9rFvN9yGWBhrh-3dT_hsjtoHXwL55FF7XvOQvEC2fRjLPVH75HK7oSgmqfDJOszC_9ubbvzv1KgmKQkT23YVS6ITGPKea3iLEqXQtN3Hfq/s400/wilberforce.jpg" width="281" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">William Wilberforce <span class="st">(24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833)</span></td></tr>
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In the late 1700s, when <b>William Wilberforce</b> was a teenager, English traders raided the African coast on the Gulf of Guinea, captured between 35,000 and 50,000 Africans a year, shipped them across the Atlantic, and sold them into slavery. It was a profitable business that many powerful people had become dependent upon. One publicist for the West Indies trade wrote, <i>"The impossibility of doing without slaves in the West Indies will always prevent this traffic being dropped. The necessity, the absolute necessity, then, of carrying it on, must, since there is no other, be its excuse."</i><br />
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By the late 1700s, the economics of slavery were so entrenched that only a handful of people thought anything could be done about it. That handful included William Wilberforce.<br />
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This would have surprised those who knew Wilberforce as a young man. He grew up surrounded by wealth. He was a native of Hull and educated at St. John's College at Cambridge. But he wasn't a serious student. A neighbor at Cambridge recalled, <i>"When he [Wilberforce] returned late in the evening to his rooms, he would summon me to join him…. He was so winning and amusing that I often sat up half the night with him, much to the detriment of my attendance at lectures the next day."</i><br />
<a name='more'></a>Yet Wilberforce had political ambitions and, with his connections, managed to win election to Parliament in 1780, where he formed a lasting friendship with <b>William Pitt</b>, the future prime minister. Wilberforce attended Parliament regularly, but he also maintained a lively social life, becoming an habitué of gentlemen's gambling clubs such as <i>Goostree's </i>and<i> Boodle's</i> in Pall Mall, London. The writer and socialite, <b>Madame de Staël,</b> described him as the "wittiest man in England" and, according to <b>Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire</b>, the Prince of Wales said that he would go anywhere to hear Wilberforce sing.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wilberforce is witnessing cruel slave treatment</td></tr>
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In October 1784, Wilberforce embarked upon a tour of Europe which would change his life and ultimately his future career. He travelled with his mother and sister in the company of <b>Isaac Milner</b>, the brilliant younger brother of his former headmaster. Wilberforce's spiritual journey is thought to have begun at this time. He started to rise early to read the Bible and pray and kept a private journal. He underwent an evangelical conversion, regretting his past life and resolving to commit his future life and work to the service of God. His conversion changed some of his habits but not his nature: he remained outwardly cheerful, interested, and respectful, tactfully urging others towards his new faith. Inwardly, he underwent an agonising struggle and became relentlessly self-critical, harshly judging his spirituality, use of time, vanity, self-control, and relationships with others. <br />
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He began to see his life's purpose: <i>"My walk is a public one,"</i> he wrote in his diary. <i>"My business is in the world, and I must mix in the assemblies of men or quit the post which Providence seems to have assigned me." </i><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wilberforce argued with his colleague Parlamentarians</td></tr>
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In particular, two causes caught his attention. First, under the influence of <b>Thomas Clarkson</b>, he became absorbed with the issue of slavery. Later he wrote, "So enormous, so dreadful, so irremediable did the trade's wickedness appear that my own mind was completely made up for abolition. Let the consequences be what they would: I from this time determined that I would never rest until I had effected its abolition." <br />
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Wilberforce was initially optimistic, even naively so. He expressed "no doubt" about his chances of quick success. As early as 1789, he and Clarkson managed to have 12 resolutions against the slave trade introduced—only to be outmaneuvered on fine legal points. The pathway to abolition was blocked by vested interests, parliamentary filibustering, entrenched bigotry, international politics, slave unrest, personal sickness, and political fear. Other bills introduced by Wilberforce were defeated in 1791, 1792, 1793, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1804, and 1805. <br />
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Slavery was only one cause that excited Wilberforce's passions. His second great calling was for the "reformation of manners," that is, morals. In fact, Wilberforce was at one time active in support of 69 philanthropic causes. He gave away one-quarter of his annual income to the poor. He fought on behalf of chimney sweeps, single mothers, Sunday schools, orphans, and juvenile delinquents. He helped found parachurch groups like the <i>Society for Bettering the Cause of the Poor</i>, the <i>Church Missionary Society,</i> the <i>British and Foreign Bible Society,</i> and the <i>Antislavery Society</i>.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Royal Humane Society meeting in Exeter Hall</td></tr>
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Wilberforce's health was continuing to fail, and he suffered further illnesses in 1824 and 1825. In 1826, Wilberforce moved from his large house in Kensington Gore to Highwood Hill, a more modest property in the countryside of Mill Hill, north of London, where he was soon joined by his son <b>William </b>and family. William had attempted a series of educational and career paths, and a venture into farming in 1830 led to huge losses, which his father repaid in full, despite offers from others to assist. This left Wilberforce with little income, and he was obliged to let his home and spend the rest of his life visiting family members and friends.<br />
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On 26 July 1833, Wilberforce heard of government concessions that guaranteed the passing of the <i>Bill for the Abolition of Slavery</i>. The following day he grew much weaker, and he died early on the morning of 29 July at his cousin's house in Cadogan Place, London. Five years after his death, sons <b>Robert </b>and<b> Samuel Wilberforce</b> published a five-volume biography about their father, and subsequently a collection of his letters in 1840. <br />
<br /></div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-79555750002955682732011-11-03T23:46:00.000+01:002011-11-03T23:46:35.517+01:00Reign of Tsar Ivan IV, "The Terrible"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ivan IV, the Terrible</td></tr>
</tbody></table><b>Ivan IV </b>(1533 - 1584), known as <b>"The Terrible"</b> completed the centralization of Russia that begun with his predecessors. Though his influence is unquestioned, it is difficult to determine which of his actions were motivated by the cool rationalism of a power politician raised in an age of intrigue and sudden death and which were the act of a paranoid who felt beset by traitors.<br />
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<div style="color: #6fa8dc;"> <b>Early life</b></div><br />
Ivan ascended the throne at the age of three. When Ivan was just three years old his father died from a boil and inflammation on his leg which developed into blood poisoning. Ivan was proclaimed the <i>Grand Prince of Moscow </i> at his father's request. At first, his mother <b>Elena Glinskaya</b> acted as a regent, but she died of what many believe to be assassination by poison<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><span></span><span></span></sup> when Ivan was only eight years old. According to his own letters, Ivan and his younger brother <b>Yuri </b>often felt neglected and offended by the mighty boyars from the<i> Shuisky and Belsky families</i>. He was fortunate to survive his minority, as boyar families struggled to reassert their authority. In 1547 he became the first ruler to take formally the title <i>Czar of all Russians,</i> and he moved quickly thereafter to extend the authority and to destroy boyar independence.<br />
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<div style="color: #6fa8dc;"><b>Territorial Expansion</b></div><br />
Ivan followed the expansionist trail blazed by his father <b>Vasili III</b>. His conquest of <i>Kazan </i>(1552) and <i>Astrakhan </i>(1556) brought the entire Volga River and the shore of the Caspian Sea under Muscovite control, while expansion to the east brought a tenuous hold over western Siberia. In the West the protracted <i>Livonian War </i>(1558 - 1583), fought in an attempt to gain the Baltic providences of Lithuania, won no long-term gains. For twenty-four years the Livonian War dragged on, damaging the Russian economy and military and failing to gain any territory for Russia. In the 1560s, Russia was devastated by the combination of drought and famine, Polish-Lithuanian raids, Tatar invasions, and the sea-trading blockade carried out by the Swedes, Poles and the Hanseatic League. The price of grain increased by a factor of ten. Contact with the West was obtained, however, through the English merchants of the Muscovy Company, who carried out extensive trade from there White Sea outposts after initial contact in 1553.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Battle of Kazan</td></tr>
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<div style="color: #6fa8dc;"> <b>Cenralization of Government</b></div><br />
Instead of usin the <i>boyar council </i>(<b>Duma</b>), Ivan relied on a select council of lower-ranking men and created a consultative assembly (<i>zemski sobor</i>), which, though little used, was designated to provide the government with information from a relatively large cross section of appointed advisers. He also created administrative offices (<i>prikazy</i>) to provide bureaucratic support for the expanding empire. Local councils (<i>zemstva</i>) were created to enforce government decisions and collect taxes.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ivan IV showing his treasure to English ambassador Jerome Horsey</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div style="color: #6fa8dc;"><b>The Oprichnina</b></div><br />
Ivan lost confidence in most of his intimate advisers after 1560. His belief that his wife had been murdered triggered a deep depression marked by growing suspicion of a treasonous conspiracy against him. In 1564 he abruptly renounced the throne and withdrew from Moscow. He agreed to resume his authority only on the conditions that many of the leading boyars be executed and that he be granted a vast royal estate (<i>oprichnina</i>) that he could rule without reference to regular administrative structure.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The oprichniki, faithful servants to their tsar</td></tr>
</tbody></table> The 1565 formation of the <i>Oprichnina</i> was also significant. The <i>Oprichnina</i> was the section of Russia (mainly the Northeast) directly ruled by Ivan and policed by his personal servicemen, the <i>Oprichniki</i>. This system of <i>Oprichnina</i> has been viewed by historians as a tool against the powerful hereditary nobility of Russia (<b>boyars</b>) who opposed the absolutist drive of the Tsar, while some have also interpreted it as a sign of the paranoia and mental deterioration of the Tsar.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tsar Ivan IV admires his sixth wife Vasilisa Melentyeva</td></tr>
</tbody></table>During the subsequent reign of terror, thousands of boyars were slaughtered and their lands within the oprichnina distributed as service estates of Ivan's supporters. Although this was a calculated technique of definitely eliminating challengers to czarist authority, the sadistic tortures of his captured opponents can be attributed only to the work of a deranged mind. Epidemics of the plague killed 10,000 in Novgorod. In 1570 the plague killed 600–1000 in Moscow daily. Depopulation and famine ensued. What had been by far the richest area of Russia became the poorest. In a dispute with the wealthy city of Novgorod, Ivan ordered the Oprichniki to murder inhabitants of the city, and it was never to regain its former prosperity.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>"Ivan the Terrible And His Son Ivan, 16 November 1581</i>" by Ilya Repin, 1885 </td></tr>
</tbody></table>Ivan IV died from a stroke while playing chess with <b>Bogdan Belsky<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Waliszewski_30-0"><span></span><span></span></sup> </b>on 28 March <small>[O.S. 18 March]</small> 1584.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Waliszewski_30-1"><span></span><span></span></sup> Upon Ivan's death, the ravaged kingdom was left to his unfit and childless son Feodor. Ivan was a patron of the arts and himself a poet and composer of considerable talent.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ivan's death during the chess play</td></tr>
</tbody></table>In the centuries following Ivan's death, historians developed different theories to better understand his reign, but independent of the perspective through which one chooses to approach this, it cannot be denied that Ivan the Terrible changed Russian history and continues to live on in popular imagination. His political legacy completely altered the Russian governmental structure; his economic policies ultimately contributed to the end of the <b>Rurik Dynasty<span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></b><i><span style="font-size: x-small;">(see <a href="http://the-history-notes.blogspot.com/p/genealogy.html">Genealogy page</a>),</span></i> and his social legacy lives on in unexpected places.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Famous St basil cathedral in Moscow, Built on the order of Ivan the Terrible to commemorate the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan</td></tr>
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</div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-68160075773402565692011-11-02T21:50:00.000+01:002011-11-02T21:50:25.514+01:00Book Review: Matilda: Queen of the Conqueror By Tracy Borman<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsOcmQiDv27txVGX_i91KAxYF6ZFWD8AYEWq_xNrRYwSjAibwHazAu2ZptDuGK6hguS7guFrn21AOtXYdbR2dyXPy66RkGQjodcFdMwnpd6qOtexLpOfcyi-CkXXBQjRZRFT_kvLQqUy-_/s1600/517mRfNqvhL._SS500_.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsOcmQiDv27txVGX_i91KAxYF6ZFWD8AYEWq_xNrRYwSjAibwHazAu2ZptDuGK6hguS7guFrn21AOtXYdbR2dyXPy66RkGQjodcFdMwnpd6qOtexLpOfcyi-CkXXBQjRZRFT_kvLQqUy-_/s320/517mRfNqvhL._SS500_.jpg" width="206" /></a></div>Behind every great man, so the saying goes, is a great woman - or, in the case of the man known to posterity as <b>William the Conqueror</b>, a diminutive one. William's wife <b>Matilda of Flanders</b> stood little more than four feet tall, but she loomed large, all the same, in the creation of his newly royal dynasty.<br />
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The first of her attributes that appealed to the young William, duke of Normandy, was her impeccably blue blood. Matilda's father, <b>Baldwin</b>, was count of the wealthy and strategically significant territories of Flanders, and a descendant of the <b>great Charlemagne</b>, while her mother, Adela, was a daughter of the king of France. Her lineage promised to bestow both lustre and legitimacy on the bastard-born Norman duke, whose power, amid the brutal unpredictability of eleventh-century politics, had always depended principally on the strength of his sword-arm.<br />
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When they married, probably in 1050, William discovered that he liked more about his well-connected wife than simply her pedigree. Strikingly, and very unusually for a medieval ruler, he seems to have taken no mistresses and fathered no illegitimate children once he became a married man. During the next two decades, this happy union produced four or five daughters and four sons, who would provoke the only significant tension between husband and wife: Matilda favoured their first-born, <b>Robert </b>- disparagingly dubbed <i>Curthose</i>, 'short-boot', because of the low stature he had inherited from his mother - while <b> William </b>preferred their third son, his namesake, known as <i>Rufus </i>for his red hair or ruddy complexion.<br />
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But Matilda was much more than an aristocratic brood mare. Dutiful and pious, she was also well educated, independent-minded and fiercely ambitious. When her husband mustered his forces for his assault on England, the kingdom he claimed after the death of its childless king <b>Edward the Confessor</b>, it was Matilda who commissioned the most spectacular ship that sailed with his invasion fleet: the <i>Mora</i>, a formidable longship, its figurehead said to have been a golden boy blowing an ivory horn. And when William set his course across the Channel, it was Matilda he left as regent to safeguard his Norman duchy in his stead.<br />
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<b>Tracy Borman</b> tells this story with a steady eye and a steady hand, tracing what can be known of Matilda's part in the events that were to change the course of English history. Her difficulty, though, is that biography is a challenging form for an eleventh-century subject, and especially for an eleventh-century woman, even one as eminent as England's first Norman queen. 'From the very beginning,' she says, 'Matilda's life was shrouded in mystery.' But it wasn't, of course, to those who were there. Only in retrospect does it become mysterious, when even dates of birth and death, let alone nuances of temperament and motivation, can be difficult to sift with any certainty from the surviving sources.<br />
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Borman is undoubtedly right that, at a distance of almost a millennium, the records we have - from the charters that bear the stamp of Matilda's political influence, to the great chronicles of the Anglo-Norman monastic historians <b>Orderic Vitalis</b> and <b>William of Malmesbury</b> - are both extraordinary and intriguing. It's more of a stretch to claim that, from them, Matilda's 'character emerges in all its brilliantly contrasting facets'. Borman's attempt to craft a portrait of her heroine is both thorough and thoughtful; but, while the broadest brushstrokes are confidently drawn, the details - inevitably but frustratingly - are a lattice-work of 'would have', 'could have', 'might have' and 'must have'.<br />
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</div>In the end, colour and drama are brought to the story more often by what Matilda didn't do than by what she did. Despite the fact that the <b>Bayeux Tapestry</b> is still known in France as <i>'La Tapisserie de la Reine Mathilde'</i>, she neither commissioned nor stitched it herself, as longstanding tradition would have it. Nor did she choose to marry William only after he had viciously beaten her for her temerity in refusing his suit at the first time of asking - just one of a handful of lurid stories of sadistic violence supposedly enacted by William upon his wife that found their way into the chronicles of later centuries. In another, he drags Matilda behind a horse by her hair and parades her naked through the streets of Caen because of rumours of her infidelity while he was occupied with the conquest of England.<br />
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There is no contemporary evidence at all to support these tales - and weaving them into the unfolding story of Matilda's life, along with romantic nineteenth-century evocations of her imagined beauty, risks muddying the historical waters. But perhaps the violence of these legends can be read as a lasting echo not only of the forcefulness of Matilda's daunting husband, but also of the implicit challenge embodied by a woman who was his consort in political as well as personal terms. And, on one notable occasion, Matilda did dare to defy her husband and king. When their eldest son Robert's resentment at his exclusion from the corridors of power boiled over into rebellion in 1078, Matilda sent not only secret messages but quantities of silver and gold to her favourite child.<br />
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It's here - in Matilda's political agency in an overwhelmingly masculine world - that the fascination of her story lies. The fact that all subsequent sovereigns of England are her direct descendants seems more a question of genealogical happenstance than the 'extraordinary feat' that Tracy Borman suggests; much more extraordinary, as she shows, was the political stature that far outstripped the tiny frame of the Conqueror's queen.</div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-74303295745870541922011-10-30T20:03:00.001+01:002011-11-02T06:36:52.622+01:00Place to visit: Jorvik Viking Centre in York, UK<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div class="summary"><div style="text-align: right;"></div><div style="text-align: right;"><i>At Jorvik you can come as close as you're ever likely to get to seeing, hearing and smelling how our Norse forebears lived</i></div></div><br />
It must be the smell that most people remember after visiting the Jorvik Viking Centre.It so distinctive that set s you immediately centuries back in the past. You <i>are </i>in Viking World!<br />
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If you don’t like fairground rides, historical dioramas, plaster cast figures or indeed olfactory sensory experiences, Jorvik won’t be for you. However, if you’re interested in seeing, hearing and smelling how the Vikings lived, this is as close as you’re going to get. York was a key Viking city in the ninth and tenth centuries and archaeologists have made some fantastic finds there – over 40,000 artefacts were unearthed, for example, during the 1976–81 Coppergate excavation, run by York Archaeological Trust. Jorvik itself sits on the site of this now-legendary <b>Coppergate dig.</b><br />
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Your visit commences in a time machine room, with a floor that shakes to signify your descent back to the year 975. Then you’re ushered on to the main event, a haunted house-style ride through a recreation of part of the <b>Viking city.</b> This is where the authentic smells are emitted, as you glide in your time capsule through reconstructed Viking streets, complete with life-size models of the original inhabitants.<br />
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It’s all positioned on the site of the excavations so you’re looking at the actual building and street layouts. You might also be gawping at original Viking countenances as the curators have used skeletal reconstructive technology to create the models’ faces. It’s great fun, and full of witty detail to keep even the most jaded museum visitor entertained.<br />
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After the ride you’re ejected into a more conventional museum exhibition space. Here’s where they tell you how the finds made during the Coppergate excavations have informed the recreation you’ve just enjoyed. It’s good stuff, with lots of interactive touchscreens and some slightly off-putting floating heads of <b>Viking ghosts</b> that start talking to you from video screens inside the display cabinets.<br />
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The actual <b>archaeological finds </b>do get rather overshadowed by all this technical trickery but they are there if you want to look. The basic effect is to ensure that you don’t leave Jorvik without understanding that the Vikings of York were an industrious bunch for whom trade and craft were the way of life.<br />
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But, before you’re pressed out into the inevitable gift shop there’s one more display, lest you’ve formed the impression that the Vikings were solely interested in the quiet city life: a Viking skeleton handily annotated with all the wounds its unfortunate owner received in what must have been a violent life. There’s barely a bone on the man that hasn’t been damaged. It’s fashionable to dismiss the martial element to the Viking existence these days, so this clear depiction of the brutality of the age is a useful counterbalance to conclude your trip round an excellent attraction.<br />
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For more information please visit <a href="http://www.jorvik-viking-centre.co.uk/">Jorvik Viking Centre</a> </div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-17425426197497909132011-10-30T00:31:00.000+02:002011-10-30T00:31:19.423+02:00The Life and Death of Girolamo Savonarola<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">A Dominican friar and prophet <b>Girolamo Savonarola</b>, living between 1452-1498, is considered the forerunner of the <i>Reformation</i>. A fasting, praying 15th century John the Baptist of his time, Savonorola's messages were fire, light, and searing conviction. Savonarola was a monk known for his learning and his sanctity, but helpless, almost ludicrous, as a preacher.<br />
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Savonarola was born of a noble family at Ferrara and in 1474, entered the Dominican order at Bologna. He seems to have preached in 1482 at Florence, but his first trial was a failure. In a convent at Brescia his zeal won attention, and in 1489 he was recalled to Florence. His second appearance in the pulpit of San Marco - on the sinfulness and apostasy of the time - was a great popular triumph, and by some he was hailed as an inspired prophet.<br />
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<div align="left">Under<b> Lorenzo the Magnificent</b> art and literature had felt the humanist revival of the 15th century, whose spirit was utterly at variance with Savonarola's conception of spirituality and Christian morality. To the adherents of the Medici therefore, Savonarola early became an object of suspicion but till the death of Lorenzo in 1492, his relations with the Church were at least not antagonistic and when, in 1493, a reform of the Dominican order in Tuscany was proposed under his auspices, it was approved by the pope, and Savonarola was named the first vicar-general.</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnAzpY5d3P8qmHQKFZFDJwvhSkJ59X26_Z9EQlct_wmF1zkFE0rTMgIMT9mMAMA3l1-98KOjaGeCD6Jsyy10E20gUhjqS1kUiLYeh5nLCB8SqCbxfyuBM1Qa-NdY-Gx1gaGDSt-Fyi3kz9/s1600/61B4CA3A-AC20-4323-AE9B497CC494D065.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnAzpY5d3P8qmHQKFZFDJwvhSkJ59X26_Z9EQlct_wmF1zkFE0rTMgIMT9mMAMA3l1-98KOjaGeCD6Jsyy10E20gUhjqS1kUiLYeh5nLCB8SqCbxfyuBM1Qa-NdY-Gx1gaGDSt-Fyi3kz9/s400/61B4CA3A-AC20-4323-AE9B497CC494D065.jpg" width="323" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><br />
His followers accepted not only his program of religious reform, but also his political views concerning a democratic theocracy which proved to be his undoing. Alexander, incensed at his political and religious activities tried to destroy his popularity, bribed him with a cardinal's hat, demanded that he appear for a hearing in Rome, and forbade him to preach. He quickly defied the pope preaching it was man's duty to resist the pope when in error, appealed to a general church council against him. The forcefulness of his message made him the man of the hour among the Florentines and he virtually controlled Florence by 1492. Reached a climax in the carnival of 1497 where he had organized troops of boys and girls to tour the city, house to house, and begged the people to give up their gauds and vanities, from cosmetics to pagan books and paintings, the worldly things that turned their hearts away from true Christian living.<br />
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And soon in the great square rose a great pyramid, fifteen stories high, carnival masks, rich dresses women's ornaments, wigs, mirrors, powder puffs, rouge-pots, lip-sticks, cards and dice, perfume and cosmetics, books of poems and on magic, musical instruments, trinkets of all kinds and worldly paintings in which Greek nymphs displayed their unclothed shapes. A Venetian merchant wrung his hands, and offered twenty thousand crowns to the city government for the pile. Instead he had to fling a valuable picture he owned on top of the heap. Excesses such as this led many people to desert him. Compulsory goodness was distasteful to many. He did not know that morals could not be restored overnight and could not be forced. <br />
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<div align="left">But now his preaching began to point plainly to a political revolution as the divinely-ordained means for the regeneration of religion and morality, and he predicted the advent of the French under Charles VIII, whom soon after he welcomed to Florence. Soon, however, the French were compelled to leave Florence, and a republic was established, of which Savonarola became the guiding spirit, his party (<i>"the Weepers"</i>) being completely in the ascendant.</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjejUnh0tW-UgrU2ZaUZyACgfDt1OY_MoLXzAvMCOaq20WPG9Og7AXKbYcyntQalUfmbBftDHVT8aIi8k1Gqk5NbtSb3GvWeSFbDL9UXDjJIafCgehNURWzNcuImUOrZFc9W4yI-9NpQFiI/s1600/5666072366_25020a4787.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjejUnh0tW-UgrU2ZaUZyACgfDt1OY_MoLXzAvMCOaq20WPG9Og7AXKbYcyntQalUfmbBftDHVT8aIi8k1Gqk5NbtSb3GvWeSFbDL9UXDjJIafCgehNURWzNcuImUOrZFc9W4yI-9NpQFiI/s400/5666072366_25020a4787.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left">The republic of Florence was to be a Christian commonwealth, of which God was the sole sovereign, and His Gospel the law: the most stringent enactments were made for the repression of vice and frivolity. Gambling was prohibited an the vanities of dress were restrained by sumptuary laws. Even the women flocked to the public square to fling down their costliest ornaments and Savonarola's followers made huge "bonfires of the vanities."</div><div align="left">Meanwhile, his rigor and claim to the gift of prophecy led to his being cited in 1495 to answer a charge of heresy at Rome and on his failing to appear he was forbidden to preach. Savonarola disregarded the order, but his difficulties at home increased. The new system proved impracticable and although the conspiracy for the recall of the Medici failed, and five of the conspirators were executed, yet this very rigor hastened the reaction.</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBblDSPKbjsQsmeNIjLAjMnNF2xFXZp8v-PqoFsxqosLAo8bytj2GBDYqFkFmA2zOJ0SYfjqpBgEQzunSMgFlSvYzJVXksNhNIiVRaUpGyWDaSsMvvykiOGzHwFcuQKmpSNzXOzRffyeFs/s1600/savonaro.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="290" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBblDSPKbjsQsmeNIjLAjMnNF2xFXZp8v-PqoFsxqosLAo8bytj2GBDYqFkFmA2zOJ0SYfjqpBgEQzunSMgFlSvYzJVXksNhNIiVRaUpGyWDaSsMvvykiOGzHwFcuQKmpSNzXOzRffyeFs/s400/savonaro.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgayZMGwp6pW5hxyQnBQFOJsiQ2Eq34Cfr9L3_cfTk1Gf4k8QaQie153G462CPatgtCS5HktTyMhr5i1VsLXBKNrx2ccpkphPfnvECJLNGnjNJkQoxBTfb4qrXQfBCk57IqdU5KMg11r956/s1600/Ordeal-Of-Girolamo-Savonarola-In-Piazza-Signoria.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br />
</a></div><div align="left">In 1497 came a sentence of excommunication from Rome; and thus precluded from administering the sacred offices, Savonarola zealously tended the sick monks during the plague. A second "bonfire of the vanities" in 1498 led to riots; and at the new elections the Medici party came into power. Savonarola was again ordered to desist from preaching, and was fiercely denounced by a Franciscan preacher,<b> Francesco da Puglia</b>. Dominicans and Franciscans appealed to the interposition of divine providence by the ordeal of fire. But when the trial was to have come off (April 1498) difficulties and debates arose, destroying Savonarola's prestige and producing a complete revulsion of public feeling.</div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZJzJhG90pbDpwLt8rvrebi12_IcN3DV8KuxgeWnoX7pJWP54DsBpVmGsMtgVbCiNqR5ft7qsiHpbGqUXUh5CzML5rARmcO7JSPiiE03fTD0eGt51evaf-2wGyDLwbI0lc2SMRnd4kHRgd/s1600/Savonarola_Being_Burnt_at_the_Stake.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZJzJhG90pbDpwLt8rvrebi12_IcN3DV8KuxgeWnoX7pJWP54DsBpVmGsMtgVbCiNqR5ft7qsiHpbGqUXUh5CzML5rARmcO7JSPiiE03fTD0eGt51evaf-2wGyDLwbI0lc2SMRnd4kHRgd/s400/Savonarola_Being_Burnt_at_the_Stake.jpg" width="291" /></a></div><div align="left"><br />
</div><div align="left">He was brought to trial for falsely claiming to have seen visions, and uttered prophecies, for religious error, and for sedition. Under torture he made avowals which he afterwards withdrew. He was declared guilty and the sentence was confirmed by Rome. On May 23, 1498, Savonarola and two Dominican disciples were hanged and burned, still professing their adherence to the Church.</div></div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-55332691389642770632011-10-27T00:09:00.000+02:002011-10-27T00:09:22.038+02:00The Antarctic Photography<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">October sees the opening of a new exhibition at <i>Buckingham Palace</i>, marking the 100th anniversary of Captain Scott’s ill-fated journey to the South Pole.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2lNz2blUaG7Ari91OffOIaQbU0eFdEdAoQf9xqf9l3EMtYO_DdCpj9cNuzVAw4Hvur46dgR27pcd7PPPwpSJXczVSiwAZN4K0MLcujEFK_5CrrupKSVCfA6ev3YBtHK5URJaJPjMJupI4/s1600/team.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="424" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2lNz2blUaG7Ari91OffOIaQbU0eFdEdAoQf9xqf9l3EMtYO_DdCpj9cNuzVAw4Hvur46dgR27pcd7PPPwpSJXczVSiwAZN4K0MLcujEFK_5CrrupKSVCfA6ev3YBtHK5URJaJPjMJupI4/s640/team.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Captain Scott and his team</td></tr>
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<a name='more'></a>The exhibition features the remarkable photographs taken in Antarctica by <b>Herbert George Ponting </b>to record Scott’s <em>Terra Nova</em> expedition of 1910-13, a journey from which he and four members of his team never returned.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbTxTUcRPSUcbpQRYTKqtF2_wvSvhBfRyIFyXm2YfCTxTaOr-DWQmyho8rTWMoBRIYwXSJF51B_nX-8peLiAyPI4SXVgQJorkGKcFMfw6VVVvwmHEpflpwED9EqgD7s5n8nULZrazYIx1-/s1600/2580018.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="424" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbTxTUcRPSUcbpQRYTKqtF2_wvSvhBfRyIFyXm2YfCTxTaOr-DWQmyho8rTWMoBRIYwXSJF51B_nX-8peLiAyPI4SXVgQJorkGKcFMfw6VVVvwmHEpflpwED9EqgD7s5n8nULZrazYIx1-/s640/2580018.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Captain Scott writes his diary</td></tr>
</tbody></table>Also on display are photographs by Frank Hurley, who accompanied Ernest Shackleton on his polar expedition between 1914–16, which included a heroic sea journey from Elephant Island to South Georgia.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZ37V9Qf2SC-3bu5b0k88ZOu-7ynZUWq9ayNV4paRXvGi2qdTkLi5dfYpvJDbV39cIB0VrHe83FT0v1rGGodK25-SRjEKJkvohq66OSn_d2_96C7PPhX7BvTYWgWm7UFzqKIg_jsB_v1cC/s1600/scott7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="424" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZ37V9Qf2SC-3bu5b0k88ZOu-7ynZUWq9ayNV4paRXvGi2qdTkLi5dfYpvJDbV39cIB0VrHe83FT0v1rGGodK25-SRjEKJkvohq66OSn_d2_96C7PPhX7BvTYWgWm7UFzqKIg_jsB_v1cC/s640/scott7.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"> 'Endurance' stuck in ice</td></tr>
</tbody></table><strong>The Heart of the Great Alone: Scott, Shackleton and Antarctic Photography</strong> is on display at the Queen's Gallery, Buckingham Palace, from 21 October–15 April 2012. You can find out more about the photographs and the exhibition at the <a href="http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/HOTGA/MicroSectionList.asp?exid=440">Royal Collection website</a>.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgG6ntpoyV_plojNXHmckKIEm51tWLPy38DV2HoHPThHz710a-y5hTrAB7CE-RA37cNmKVBHeUUHrUoQGT2V012GUwEjCHWLrQHTXUzG8dMttdiutI6KKDlj7qpqWtCnEwo6JH2M8sF_KQQ/s1600/2580003.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="424" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgG6ntpoyV_plojNXHmckKIEm51tWLPy38DV2HoHPThHz710a-y5hTrAB7CE-RA37cNmKVBHeUUHrUoQGT2V012GUwEjCHWLrQHTXUzG8dMttdiutI6KKDlj7qpqWtCnEwo6JH2M8sF_KQQ/s640/2580003.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Captain Lawrence Oates and Siberian ponies on board 'Terra Nova'</td></tr>
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</div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-18296574756380457112011-10-26T23:53:00.000+02:002011-10-26T23:53:22.729+02:00Place to visit: Caerphilly Castle, UK<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><b>Caerphilly Castle </b>rests within the rolling hills north of Cardiff, a concentric masterpiece with a fully flooded moat. The tremendous size of the castle and its two lakes makes Caerphilly the largest in Wales and the second biggest in Britain.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9t41r9lCviAR78g7jd25EH_y827lgxwQzzUe8QqXpBo8LLGSm14RBtVgtmbKrFAdozkO4xpOeY3evqHW3EbxWL6as0xPKlf_iI3bZe67OvGbMhbCw2IyikFvff3MEheGeuJNUvPMxdaZT/s1600/Caerphilly-Castle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9t41r9lCviAR78g7jd25EH_y827lgxwQzzUe8QqXpBo8LLGSm14RBtVgtmbKrFAdozkO4xpOeY3evqHW3EbxWL6as0xPKlf_iI3bZe67OvGbMhbCw2IyikFvff3MEheGeuJNUvPMxdaZT/s400/Caerphilly-Castle.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br />
Built by marcher lord <b>Gilbert de Clare</b> between 1268 and 1271 as a response to the growing threat of <b>Llywelyn ap Gruffudd</b>, the castle served as an effective defence against the Welsh.<br />
It eventually fell into disrepair, causing the antiquary Leland to describe it as a ruin in 1539. Some damage has certainly been done to the castle, particularly to its leaning tower, which Cromwell may have attempted to destroy with gunpowder during the Civil War.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiccEYxXM_NrPnDIfCUgrGBM-R6xb3N9uxOlrv7mqUuHzuO4vXj_BLdPFrZv_T6RJvCncmIJ_4h7i0OmOB2kg3liE00reAh70En9eYt64fYsBwC19keRv4pXXgv7O3jn3hOZAtaeKzUyHi/s1600/Caerphilly-castle+1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiccEYxXM_NrPnDIfCUgrGBM-R6xb3N9uxOlrv7mqUuHzuO4vXj_BLdPFrZv_T6RJvCncmIJ_4h7i0OmOB2kg3liE00reAh70En9eYt64fYsBwC19keRv4pXXgv7O3jn3hOZAtaeKzUyHi/s400/Caerphilly-castle+1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br />
Caerphilly was later restored by the great medievalist, the <b>Third Marquess of Bute</b> in the latter half of the 19th century, to be completed at last in the 1960s. On the central island the 14th-century banquet hall is in superb condition, showcasing towering windows, carved corbels, and the coats of arms of previous owners.<br />
Enjoy long walks around the well-tended grounds which offer beautiful panoramic views of the castle.<br />
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Caerphilly Castle also boasts replica parapets and working siege engines. War enthusiasts and children should certainly take in the medieval siege experience with this full scale, operational weaponry which is always on display and demonstrated for visitors several times per year.<br />
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Once attacked but never taken, Caerphilly Castle is an example of the medieval war machine at its best.<br />
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<b style="color: #6fa8dc;">Caerphilly Castle’s Illuminata 2011</b> event will take place from the 9th to 11th December, coinciding with the town’s Christmas Medieval Market on the 10th and 11th.<br />
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The Illuminata spectacular will see the castle bathed in light for a twice nightly sound and light show. Reflecting the past of the Welsh stronghold, four eras in Caerphilly’s long history will be projected onto the castle walls. Film showings will be at 5.30pm and 6.30pm, with doors opening at 5pm.<br />
Groups wishing to make a night of it can enjoy an evening of feasting and entertainment in the castle’s Great Hall as the medieval banquet gets underway. The banquets will be held each night following the second Illuminata showing.<br />
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<b>Caerphilly’s Christmas Medieval Market</b> is to take place from 10am until 4pm, as a host of stands selling seasonal produce take over the town centre. Each morning costumed characters will make their way from the town centre to the castle, where visiting groups can enjoy medieval entertainment with jesters, musicians and craftsmen.<br />
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</div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6224373148016420407.post-33195636837236470932011-10-17T20:46:00.000+02:002011-10-17T20:46:05.659+02:00The Elephants of King George III<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">The collection of exotic animals become popular during the reign of<b> Charles III of Spain</b> (1716- 88), and his prized Indian elephants were paraded as symbols of wealth, power and prestige.The interest aroused by these animals and the problems encountered are explored by <b>Carlos Gomez-Centurion</b> in "Treasures Fit for a King: King Charles III of Spain's Indian Elephants" ("Journal of the History of Collections", vol 22, no1, OUPI).<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNGNvsBP_G6FqPFwlnHyGluAMVCw_k5HEUc133zEkkehAi9bk6LRVBTKbw3ufcwPuZqCeBqxgJYsVA_m4J_gGeuCcqrH_GwsrpWClkNtn5N2FeCyFHJICS-tQp6pGg-U_UB4KYMeXy17Cf/s1600/SCSG_317cc.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="361" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNGNvsBP_G6FqPFwlnHyGluAMVCw_k5HEUc133zEkkehAi9bk6LRVBTKbw3ufcwPuZqCeBqxgJYsVA_m4J_gGeuCcqrH_GwsrpWClkNtn5N2FeCyFHJICS-tQp6pGg-U_UB4KYMeXy17Cf/s400/SCSG_317cc.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>The increase in trade and the opening of new navigation routes, combined with a fascination for the exotic, led many monarchs to disperse animals around their royal residencies. However, according to Gomez-Centurion "transpoting an elephant to Europe remained an expensive and difficult undertaking, even for a king."<br />
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Charles III acquired the first of his Indian elephants in 1773. The animal was transferred via direct commercial routes between Manila and Cadiz - cutting the journey by around half, to six or seven months. However, it scarcely had a strenght to undertake the march from Cadiz to San Ildefonso (north-west of Madrid) were the court was in residence - and special shoes had to be made for its bruised feet.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">King Charles III of Spain</td></tr>
</tbody></table>Once in its new home, the elephant was treated with the utmost care and provided with "as much fruit and vegetable as it could eat at any hour of the day or night" and served two hot meals a day. Sources reveal that in 1777 the king's second elephant "suffered several attacks of uncontrollable rage and caused a great deal of damage".<br />
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In total, King Charles had three elephants transported to Spain (the last arriving in 1779) at a cost of over half a million Reales. Sadly, none lived to see the next arrival.</div>thaichihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17003273178272643581noreply@blogger.com3